PSYCH Unit 4

actor/observer bias

The tendency to blame our actions on the situation and blame the actions of others on their personalities

altruism

Unselfish regard for the welfare of others

attributions

an inference regarding the cause of a person's behavior or an interpersonal event.

belief perseverance

Clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were informed has been discredited

burnout

physical, emotional, or mental exhaustion accompanied by decreased motivation, lowered performance, and negative attitudes toward oneself and others.

bystander effect

The tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if others are present; research on this phenomenon indicates that both situational and attentional variables impact whether someone is likley to help (or not)

central route to persuasion

Attitude change path in which interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts

cognitive dissonance

We act to reduce discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent

cognitive load

the relative demand imposed by a particular task, in terms of mental resources required. Also called mental load; mental workload.

collectivism

a social or cultural tradition, ideology, or personal outlook that emphasizes the group or community rather than each person's individuality.

confirmation bias

A tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

conformity

Adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard

deindividuation

The loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occuring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity

diffusion of responsibility

The tendency for individuals to feel diminished responsibility for their actions when they are surrounded by others who are acting the same way

discrimination

the unjust and differential treatment of the members of different age, gender, racial, ethnic, religious, national, ability identity, sexual orientation, socioeconomic, and other groups

dispositional attributions

A concept phrase in psychology that refers to the tendency to assign responsibility for others' behaviors due to their inherent characteristics, such as their motives, beliefs or personality, rather than the external (situational) influences, such as the individual's environment or culture.

door-in-the-face technique

Asking for a large commitment and being refused and then asking for a smaller commitment

elaboration likelihood model

Theory identifying two ways to persuade: a central route and a peripheral route

ethnocentrism

Belief in the superiority of one's nation or ethnic group.

explanatory style

an individual's unique way of describing and explaining some phenomenon, event, or personal history.

external locus of control

The perception that chance or outside forces beyond your personal control determine your fate.

false consensus effect

Observers, when analyzing another's behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition

foot-in-the-door technique

People who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request

fundamental attribution error

the tendency to overestimate the degree to which an individual's behavior is determined by their abiding personal characteristics, attitudes, or beliefs and, correspondingly, to minimize the influence of the surrounding situation on that behavior (e.g., financial or social pressures).

group polarization

Enhancement of a group's prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group

groupthink

The mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives.

halo effect

A rating bias in which a general evaluation (usually positive) of a person, or an evaluation of a person on a specific dimension, influences judgments of that person on other specific dimensions. For example, a person who is generally liked might be judged as more intelligent, competent, and honest than he or she actually is.

implicit attitudes

attitudes that individuals hold but may be unaware of or may not acknowledge

in-group bias

The tendency to favor our own group

individualism

Giving priority to one's own goals over group goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather that group identifications.

industrial-organizational (I/O) psychologists

the branch of psychology that studies human behavior in the work environment and applies general psychological principles to work-related issues and problems

informational social influence

Influence resulting from one's willingness to accept others opinions about reality

internal locus of control

The perception that you control your own fate

just-world phenomenon

People believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get

mere-exposure effect

Repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them

multiculturalism

the promotion or celebration of cultural diversity within a society

normative social influence

Influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval

obedience

A form of compliance that occurs when people follow direct commands, usually from someone in a position of authority

optimistic explanatory style

An attributional style characterized by external and unstable factors to explain negative events in life., but oppostite for positive life events. For example, a student may blame recent changes in their work hours for their bad grade.

out-group homogeneity bias

The tendency to view outgroup members as less varied than ingroup members

peripheral route to persuasion

Attitude change path in which people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker's attractiveness

person perception

the processes by which people think about, appraise, and evaluate other people; this includes attributions of motives (attribution theory), perception of liking (mere exposure), self-fulfilling prophecies, and social comparison

persuasion

an active attempt by one person to change another persons' attitudes, beliefs, or emotions associated with some issue, person, concept, or object

pessimistic explanatory style

an attributional style characterized by internal and stable attributions when negative life events occur (but opposite for positive life events). For example, a person with this style might interpret a low grade as resulting from a lack of intelligence that will not change.

prejudice

An unjustifiable (and usually negative) attitude toward a group and its members

prosocial behavior

Positive, constructive, helpful behavior - the opposite of antisocial behavior

relative deprivation

the perception by an individual that the amount of a desired resource (e.g., money, social status) they have is less than some comparison standard

role

Set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave

self-fulfilling prophecy

a belief that leads to its own fulfillment

self-serving bias

the tendency to interpret events in a way that assigns credit for success to oneself but denies one's responsibility for failure, which is blamed on external factors

situational attributions

ascribing one's own behavior or another's behavior to causes outside the person concerned (such as luck, pressure from other people, or external circumstances)

social comparison

Evaluating one's own abilities and circumstances in relation to those of others. This impacts self-image and subjective well-being. Includes "upward social comparison" (comparing oneself with someone judged to be better than oneself) and "downward social comparison" (comparing oneself with someone judged to be not as good as oneself).

social facilitation

Stronger responses on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others

social influence theory

proposes that social pressure to behave or think in certain ways can be normative or informational

social loafing

People in a group exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable

social norms

Understood rule for accepted and expected behavior - norms prescribe "proper" behavior

social psychology

The scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another

social reciprocity norm

the social standard that people who help others will receive equivalent benefits from them in their return

social responsibility norm

People will help those dependent upon them

social trap

A situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior

stereotype

a set of cognitive generalizations (e.g., beliefs, expectations) about the qualities and characteristics of the members of a group or social category

superordinate goals

Shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation

agreeableness

A personality dimension that includes attributes such as trust, altruism, kindness, cooperation, and other prosocial behaviors.

Big Five theory

A model of the primary dimensions of individual differences in personality. The dimensions are usually labeled extraversion, neuroticism, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness to experience.

collectivist culture

Giving priority to the goals of one's group (often one's extended family or work group) and defining one's identity accordingly.

conscientiousness

A personality dimension that describes someone who is responsible, dependable, persistent, and organized.

denial

Defense mechanism by which people refuse to believe or even to perceive painful realities.

displacement

Defense mechanism that shifts negative impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person.

ego

The largely conscious "executive" part of personality that mediates among the demands of the other two parts of the psyche and ultimately operates on what is realistic.

ego defense mechanisms

The psyche's protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality.

emotional stability

A personality dimension in which a person

extraversion

A personality dimension describing someone who is sociable, gregarious, and assertive.

factor analysis

A statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie a person's total score.

humanistic psychology

In addition to patterns and characteristics, this perspective aims to understand personality by considering what it is like to be that person, what makes that person essentially himself or herself, and what gives the person's life meaning from the person's own subjective perspective.

id

A reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives, demanding immediate gratification.

openness to experience

A personality dimension that characterizes someone in terms of a sense of curiosity, open-mindedness, and acceptance of novel situations.

personality

An individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting.

personality inventories

A questionnaire on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors.

preconscious mind

according to psychodynamic theory, the level of the psyche that contains thoughts, feelings, and impulses not presently in awareness but that can more or less readily called into consciousness

projection

Psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which people disguise their own threatening impulses by attributing them to others.

projective test

A personality test, such as the rorschach or tat, that provides ambiguous stimuli designed to trigger projection of one's inner dynamics.

psychodynamic theory

View personality with a focus on the unconscious and the importance of childhood experiences.

rationalization

Psychoanalytic defense mechanism that offers self-justifying explanations in place of the real, more threatening, unconscious reasons for one's actions.

reaction formation

Defense mechanism by which the ego unconsciously switches unacceptable impulses into their opposites. Thus, people may express feelings that are the opposite of their anxiety-arousing unconscious feelings.

reciprocal determinism

The interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition, and environment.

regression

Defense mechanism in which an individual faced with anxiety retreats to a more infantile psychosexual stage, where some psychic energy remains fixated.

repression

The basic defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness.

Rorschach test

The most widely used projective test - seeks to identify people's inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of inkblots.

self-actualization

The complete realization of that of which one is capable, involving maximum development of abilities and full involvement in and appreciation for life.

self-concept

One's description and evaluation of oneself, including psychological and physical characteristics, qualities, skills, roles and so forth.

self-efficacy

An individual's subjective perception of his or her capability to perform in a given setting or to attain desired results.

self-esteem

The degree to which the qualities and characteristics contained in one's self-concept are perceived to be positive.

social-cognitive theory

A personality theory stating that our traits and social environments interact with one another and how mental processes such as interpretation further impact our behavior.

sublimation

Defense mechanism by which people re-channel their unacceptable impulses into socially approved activities.

superego

Represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgement (the conscience)and for future aspirations.

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

A projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes.

trait

A characteristics pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act, as assessed by self-report inventories and peer reports.

trait theories

A theory of personality that emphasizes the lasting nature of personal characteristics and an individual's tendency to respond in a certain way in many different kinds of situations.

unconditional positive regard

According to Carl Rogers, an attitude of total acceptance toward another person.

unconscious

According to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories.