HIS 072B: Final Exam Study Guide

Hostility Toward Women Workers

Letter to congressman in 1931
- If less women were employed it would make room for the employment of many idle men in our country
- Woman's true place is her home where she can see to the proper raising of her children while the man earns the living
- This is nature's decree
- I do not believe that we are again going to have normal and prosperous times until women do return to their homes

Section 213 of Economy Act

stipulated that married persons could not be employed by the federal government at the same time
- 1932
- Neutral language vs. gendered enforcement

Contemporary programs labeled "welfare"

- Aid to dependent children (ADC), part of 1935 Social Security Act
- Aid to families with dependent children (AFDC)
- Temporary assistance for needy families, 1996/1997

"Welfare" =

Vision of good life

Examples of welfare

- Paved streets and sidewalks
- Highways
- Public transportation systems
- Schools
- Public water
- Firefighting
- Garbage collection
- Pollution regulation
- Home mortgage for tax deductions
- Business expense deductions
- Farm subsidies, corporate subsidies
- Government college scholarships and loans
- Capital gains tax limits
- Social security old-age pensions
- Medicare (health insurance for elderly)

1935 Social Security Act

- Created the contemporary meaning of "welfare"
- Stratified two-track system of provisions
- With gender roles in mind

Track 1: Social Insurance Programs

- Workers' Compensation
- Unemployment Compensation
- Old age insurance (now called Social Security)

Track 2: Public Assistance Programs

- ADC Aid to Dependent Children (-> AFDC -> TANF)
- Aid to the blind
- Old Age Assistance (Aid to the Indigent Elderly)

Unemployment Compensation

Excluded from its definition of employment
- Domestic workers in private households
- Agricultural workers from its definition of employment

________ excluded from the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938

Domestic workers

Issei

First generation (most immigrated between 1908-1924)

Ozawa v. US (1922)

Supreme Court ruled Japanese racially ineligible to naturalize as U.S. citizens

Nisei

Second generation (generally born between 1910-1914)
- U.S. citizens

Valerie Matsumoto

Author of Japanese American Women During World War II
, Frontiers (1984)

Mitsuye Endo v. United States

On December 18, 1944 Court ruled that the defendant must be granted freedom. 2 weeks later, the Japanese Americans were allowed to return home for the first time in 3 years.

Writ of habeas corpus

Legal order requiring detained person charged or released

Mitsuye Endo

At the outbreak of World War II, Mitsuye Endo was a 22-year-old clerical worker for the California Department of Motor Vehicles based in Sacramento, one the few Nisei who had been able to secure a state job at a time when occupational discrimination against Japanese Americans was severe

Fifth Amendment

A constitutional amendment designed to protect the rights of persons accused of crimes, including protection against double jeopardy, self-incrimination, and punishment without due process of law

During War Years (1941-1945)

- Over 6.5 million women entered the labor force
- Increased size of the female labor force by 57%
- Married women for first time comprised near majority of women workers
- Wages leaped upwards
- Unionization of woman grew 4x

Carmen Chavez

- Her and her sisters of Albuquerque entered wage labor for the first time during the war
- Taste of independence
- Feeling of self-confidence and a sense of worth

Containment

A U.S. foreign policy adopted by President Harry Truman in the late 1940s, in which the United States tried to stop the spread of communism by creating alliances and helping weak countries to resist Soviet advances

Truman Doctrine (1947)

Speech to Congress 1947: "between alternative ways of life"
- Given this choice, Truman concluded that "it must be the policy of the United States to support free people who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities."

Option 1 of the Truman Doctrine

"free," based on "representative government, free elections, guarantees of individual liberty, and freedom of speech and religion."

Option 2 of the Truman Doctrine

was "tyranny," based on "terror and oppression, a controlled press and radio,...and a suppression of personal freedoms."

U.S. official rhetoric of Cold War as a worldwide struggle over future of democracy in battle against communism

- Good vs. Evil
- Freedom vs. Totalitarianism
- Capitalism v. Communism

Containment abroad (1947-1949)

- Truman doctrine
- Marshall plan
- Berlin airlift
- U.S. response advent Communist government in China
- Establishment of NATO

Containment aboard (1950s+)

- Korean War (1950-1953)
- Vietnam War (1954-1975)

Kitchen Debate (1959)

Televised exchange in 1959 between Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev and American Vice President Richard Nixon. Meeting at the American National Exhibition in Moscow, the two leaders sparred over the relative merits of capitalist consumer culture versus Soviet state planning. Nixon won applause for his staunch defense of American capitalism, helping lead him to the Republican nomination for president in 1960.

1947: Federal Employee Loyalty Program

Civil servants
- "General test that on all evidence, reasonable grounds exist for belief that the person involved is disloyal to the Government of the United States"
- Disciplinary action
- No right to confront accuser

Attorney General's List of Subversive Organizations (AGLOSO)

A list of subversive organizations in a 1947 article

1958 Westinghouse Ad

Depicted a nuclear family

Female sexuality

- Safe within marriage
- Focused on marriage and motherhood

"Radioactivity Personified" from "Your Chance to Live" (1972)

Depicted female sexuality outside of marriage as dangerous

"Kinsey Reports" =

- Sexual Behavior in the Human Male (1948)
- Sexual Behavior of the Human Female (1953)

Sexual Behavior in the Human Female (1953)

- 50 percent of the females in the sample had had coitus before they were married
- Condemnation of pre-marital coitus are part of the overt culture

Sexual Behavior in the Human Male (1948)

- There is only about half of the male population whose sexual behavior is exclusively heterosexual
- If persons were not characterized as heterosexual or homosexual, but as individuals who have had certain amounts of heterosexual experience and certain amounts of homosexual experience
- At least 37% of the male population has so,e homosexual experience between the beginning of adolescence and old age (more than 1 out of 3 males)
- Among males who remained unmarried until the age of 35, almost exactly 50 percent have homosexual experiences

Kinsey Report response

Received lots of backlash

Explanation of unwed mothers before World War II

- Negative environmental conditions
- Moral failing

Solution of unwed mothers before World War II

- Place in good environment
- Keep child
- Carry weight of stigma
- Not emphasis on marriageability

"Expert" Explanations and Solutions for unwed mothers 1940s and 1950s

White unwed mothers
- Mental illness
- Adoption
- Emphasis on rehabilitating reputation for marriageability
Black unwed mothers
- Sexual stereotyping
- Criminalization
- Not emphasize reputation for marriageability

Florence Crittenton Home for Unwed Mothers

A place for unwed mothers to live

LGBT

Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender

Q

Queer or questioning

I

Intersex, sometimes inquiring

A

Asexual, Androgynous, and/or Ally

+

For inclusivity

Invention of the term "homosexual"

In 1869 in German penal code

First use of "homosexual" in English

- 1892
- Translation of Richard von Kraft-Ebing, Psychopathia Sexualis from 1886
- Criminal (act) vs. medical (identity)

Lesbian history before World War II

- Women's colleges: site of many homosexual relations
- "Boston Marriages"

Boston Marriages

The relationship between women who lived together, often in long-term, sometimes romantic, relationships.
Ex: Ellen Gates Starr and Jane Addams

Radclyffe Hall, Well of Loneliness

1928

"Prove it on Me Blues"

A song that described homosexuality

Homosexuality in the 1930s and the Depression

Sapphic sisters scam

What World War II created:

- New economic opportunities
- Opportunities to articulate gay identities
- Growth of urban gay subcultures

Don't Ask Don't Tell

Clinton managed to gain support for a compromise measure under which homosexual servicemen and servicewomen could remain in the military if they did not openly declare their sexual orientation
- 1993-2011

Mobilization

- Leave social constraints of small towns and family/neighbors who monitored behavior
- Enter all female worlds of factories and military units
- Non-enforcement of anti-gay military policy

National "Coming Out": World War II and the U.S. Military

- Two unknown American sailors in a Photo Booth in the mid-1940s
- Everyone was going with someone or had a crush on someone

Demobilization

- Military enforces policy
- Thousands gay personnel discharged to usually metropolitan cities
- Many believed they could not go home again
- Contributed formation of gay communities (New York, San Francisco, Los Angeles, Boston, and Houston)

Bar Scene 1940s and 1950s

Common space for homosexual relations

Lavender Scare

a witch hunt and the mass firings of homosexual people in the 1950s from the United States government
- 1950: Employment of Homosexuals and Other Sex Perverts in Government
- 1953: Eisenhower Executive Order

Intersex

An umbrella term used to describe a variety of conditions in which a person is born with reproductive and/or sexual anatomy that doesn't seem to fit the medical definitions of female or male

Many visibly intersex people are mutilated in infancy and early childhood by doctors to ____

Make their sex characteristics conform to society's idea of what normal bodies should look like

Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH)

condition during prenatal development in which the adrenal glands produce high levels of androgens; sometimes associated with masculinization of external genitalia in genetic females; and sometimes associated with higher rates of masculine-stereotyped play in genetic females

hopkins protocol

Treatment of intersex children

Separation of gender from anatomy =

"Gender role"

" Gender role " was learned

- Nurture > nature
- In early phase
- Became imprinted in child's mind

Treatment of intersex children until 1990s when _____

Intersex activists challenged

The two-sex model ___

Reinforces/maps onto social/gender role

"Intersexion" (2012)

Documentary that looks at the lives of intersex people and how they go about living in between gender lines in a society where gender is strictly binary

In the Shadows of the Freeway: Growing Up Brown & Queer

Book by Lydia Otero
- Discusses the author's intersectional identities

Intersectionality

A term coined by law professor Kimberle Crenshaw in the 1980s to describe the way that multiple systems of oppression interact in the lives of those with multiple marginalized identities

Before 1964, women outnumbered men 3 to 1 in day-to-day activities

Long history of involvement in religious, community, and reform activities

Real-life theater

Created by Mamie Bradley in 1955

Mamie Bradley

Mother of Emmett Till; insisted upon an open casket for Till's funeral so people could see brutality

Emmett Till

Murdered in 1955 for whistling at a white woman by her husband and his friends. They kidnapped him and brutally killed him. his death led to the American Civil Rights movement.

Coming of Age in Mississippi

by Anne Moody

Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)

Affirms "separate but equal" accommodations were constitutional

A large number of NAACP legal test cases involved _____

Young women and girls

Sipuel v. Board of Regents of Univ. of Oklahoma

◦ Ada Sipuel denied admission to University of Oklahoma School of law
◦ 1946-1948 NAACP test case demanding that separate facilities in fact be made equal (not directly challenge "separate but equal")
◦ State complied by roping off space in state capital, called law school, and assigned three law professors as faculty

Brown v. Board of Education (1954)

◦ NAACP directly challenged "separate but equal"
◦ 8 year-old Linda Brown was lead case in the series of lawsuits that were known as Brown v. Board of Education.
◦ Supreme Court: "Separate educational facilities are inherently unequal "

1957 Court Order

Desegregate Arkansas schools

Little Rock Nine

In September 1957 the school board in Little rock, Arkansas, won a court order to admit nine African American students to Central High a school with 2,000 white students. The governor ordered troops from Arkansas National Guard to prevent the nine from entering the school. The next day as the National Guard troops surrounded the school, an angry white mob joined the troops to protest the integration plan and to intimidate the AA students trying to register. The mob violence pushed Eisenhower's patience to the breaking point. He immediately ordered the US Army to send troops to Little Rock to protect and escort them for the full school year.

Montgomery Bus Boycott

protest in 1955-1956 by African Americans against racial segregation in bus system of Montgomery, Alabama

Jo Ann Robinson

Civil Rights activist and educator in Montgomery; head of Women's Political Council

Women's Political Council (WPC)

Headed by Jo Ann Robinson

Claudette Colvin

young woman who at the age of 15, in March 1955, refused to give up her seat on a Montegomery bus (before Rosa Parks)

Rosa Parks

United States civil rights leader who refused to give up her seat on a bus to a white man in Montgomery (Alabama) and so triggered the national civil rights movement (born in 1913)

Committee for Equal Justice For Mrs. Recy Taylor

- 1944
- Took part in the Montgomery Bus Boycott

Recy Taylor

African American woman in Alabama who was kidnapped and gang raped by six white men. No charges were ever brought about. One of the first instances of nationwide protest and activism among the African American community.

Montgomery Improvement Association (MIA)

Organization formed by African Americans in Montgomery, Alabama, in 1956 to strengthen the bus boycott and to coordinate protest efforts of African Americans; led by Martin Luther King Jr.

1960 Woolworth's sit-ins

A protest where African-Americans sat in Woolworth's until they were served
- Greensboro, NC

Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)

students whose purpose was coordinate a nonviolent attack on segregation and other forms of racism

Ella Baker

55 year old executive director of the SCLC; urged student leaders who had encouraged sit-ins to create their own organization (the SNCC - Student Nonviolent Cooperating Committee)

Ella Baker and the Formation of SNCC

- Remain separate from Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)
- Grassroots democracy
- Decision making by groups rather than individual leaders
- Community at large: including low income, women, young

Freedom Riders, 1961

civil rights activists who rode interstate buses into the segregated southern U.S. in 1961. They wanted to challenge local laws or customs that enforced segregation in seating and bus terminals and the non-enforcement of the U.S. Supreme Court decisions, which ruled segregated public buses unconstitutional. The Southern states had ignored the rulings and the federal government did not enforce them. Helped push Kennedy towards supporting civil rights.

Freedom Summer (1964)

Effort by civil rights groups in Mississippi to register black voters during the summer of 1964

1964 Civil Rights Act

Prohibited discrimination in public accommodations on the basis of race and sex

1965 Voting Rights Act

Prohibits discrimination in terms of voting

Bobby Seale and Huey Newton

Founders of the Black Panther Party

Black Panther Party

A group formed in 1966, inspired by the idea of Black Power, that provided aid to black neighborhoods; often thought of as radical or violent