Unit 4 - Cognition & Memory - AP Psychology

memory

the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information.

recall

memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.

recognition

memory in which the person identifies items previously learned. ex. multiple-choice test.

relearning

improved retrieval with repeated learning

encoding

the process of getting information into the memory system

storage

the process of retaining encoded information over time.

retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage

parallel processing

processing many aspects of a situation simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions.

sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system.

short-term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as digits of a phone number while calling, before the information is stored or forgotten.

long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

working memory

a newer understanding of short-term memory that adds conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.

explicit memory

retention of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare." (Also called declarative memory.)

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings.

implicit memory

retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection. (Also called nondeclarative memory.)

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second.

echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds.

chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically.

mnemonics [nih-MON-iks]

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.

spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice.

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. Also sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning.

shallow processing

encoding on a basic level, based on the structure or appearance of words.

deep processing

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention.

semantic memory

explicit memory of facts and general knowledge; one of our two conscious memory systems (the other is episodic memory)

episodic memory

explicit memory of personally experienced events; one of our two conscious memory systems (the other is semantic memory).

hippocampus

a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process for storage explicit (conscious) memories of facts and events.

memory consolidation

the neural storage of a long-term memory.

flashbulb memory

a clear, sustained memory of an emotionally significant moment or event.

long-term potentiation (LTP)

an increase in a cell's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; a neural basis for learning and memory.

priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response.

mood-congruent memory

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood.

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last (recency effect) and first (primacy effect) items in a list.

anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories.

retrograde amnesia

an inability to retrieve information from one's past.

proactive interference

the forward-acting disruptive effect of older learning on the recall of new information.

retroactive interference

the backward-acting disruptive effect of newer learning on the recall of old information.

misinformation effect

occurs when misleading information has distorted one's memory of an event.

source amnesia

faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined. (Also called source misattribution.) Source amnesia, along with the misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories.

déjà vu

that eerie sense that "I've experienced this before." Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience.

cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

algorithm

a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier—but also more error-prone—use of heuristics.

heuristic

a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more errorprone than an algorithm.

insight

a sudden realization of a problem's solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions.

confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence.

fixation

in cognition, the inability to see a problem from a new perspective; an obstacle to problem solving.

mental set

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past.

intuition

an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning.

representativeness heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information.

availability heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common.

overconfidence

the tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.

belief perseverance

clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited.

Framing

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments.

linear perspective (monocular cue)

parallel lines appear to converge with distance

relative size

a monocular cue for perceiving depth; the smaller retinal image is farther away

Interposition

if one object partially blocks our view of another, we perceive it as closer

Gestalt Principles

Principles that describe the brain's organization of sensory information into meaningful units and patterns.

Similarity Principle (Gestalt)

objects that look alike will be grouped together

Proximity Principle (Gestalt)

objects that are closer together will be grouped

figure-ground perception

the ability to discriminate properly between a figure and its background

selective attention

the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus

change blindness

failing to notice changes in the environment; a form of inattentional blindness

top-down processing

information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations

bottom-up processing

analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information