Introduction to Psychology Concepts and Theories

Psychology

Study of human behavior and mental processes.

Obedience

Following direct orders from authority figures.

Conformity

Changing behavior to fit in with the majority.

Normative Influence

Fitting in to be accepted by others.

Informative Influence

Changing beliefs to be correct or fixed.

Cognitive Dissonance

Disconnection between behavior and attitudes.

Authority

Position of power over others.

In-group

Group with which one identifies.

Out-group

Group different from oneself.

Diffusion of Responsibility

Shifting responsibility onto others.

Bystander Effect

Less likelihood of helping when others are present.

Kitty Genovese Case

Example illustrating the bystander effect.

Scientific Method

Systematic steps for conducting research.

Cross-cultural Study

Comparing behaviors across different cultures.

Longitudinal Study

Research following subjects over time.

Replication

Reproducing study results to confirm validity.

Slippery Slope

Gradual increase of power leading to control.

Correlation

Discovers relationships for predicting future events.

Experimental Research

Investigates cause and effect relationships.

Naturalistic Observation

Observing behavior in natural environments.

Case Studies

In-depth analysis of one individual or group.

Surveys

Questionnaires to gather data from many participants.

Wording Bias

Influence of question phrasing on survey responses.

Generalizability

Ability to apply findings to broader populations.

Replication

Repetition of research to verify results.

Positive Correlation

Both factors increase or decrease together.

Negative Correlation

One factor increases while the other decreases.

Control Groups

Comparison group that remains unchanged.

Dependent Variable

Effect that depends on the independent variable.

Independent Variable

Cause that influences the dependent variable.

Sensation

Information intake through sensory receptors.

Perception

Interpretation of sensory information.

Transduction

Conversion of sensory input into neural signals.

Bottom-Up Processing

Building perception from sensory input.

Top-Down Processing

Using prior knowledge to interpret stimuli.

Neural Impulse

Electrical signals generated by neurons.

Neurotransmitters

Chemicals transmitting signals between neurons.

Acetylcholine

Involved in muscle action and memory.

Dopamine

Regulates movement, learning, and emotion.

Serotonin

Influences mood, hunger, and sleep.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Connects CNS to limbs and organs.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Comprises the brain and spinal cord.

Frontal Lobe

Responsible for decision-making and personality.

Plasticity

Brain's ability to adapt and change.

Wernicke's Area

Interprets auditory information.

Broca's Area

Controls speech production.

Amygdala

Regulates fear and emotional responses.

Hippocampus

Essential for memory formation.

Hypothalamus

Maintains homeostasis and hormone regulation.

fMRI

Imaging technique showing brain activity.

Selective Attention

Focusing on specific stimuli while ignoring others.

Inattentional Blindness

Failure to notice unexpected stimuli.

Circadian rhythms

24-hour biological cycle affecting sleep and wakefulness.

Sleep deprivation effects

Includes irritability, hunger, and increased accidents.

Sleep stages

Five distinct stages occur every 90 minutes.

Stage 1 & 2

Light sleep; relaxed yet alert state.

Stage 3 & 4

Deep sleep with slow brain activity.

REM sleep

Dreaming stage; brain active, body paralyzed.

REM rebound

Increased REM sleep after deprivation.

Insomnia

Difficulty falling or staying asleep.

Narcolepsy

Sudden sleep attacks during the day.

Psychoactive drugs

Alter perception, mood, and consciousness.

Depressants

Lower neural activity and body functions.

Stimulants

Increase neural activity and body functions.

Classical conditioning

Learning through association of stimuli.

Unconditioned stimulus (US)

Natural trigger causing an unconditioned response.

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

Learned trigger that elicits a conditioned response.

Stimulus generalization

Response to similar stimuli after conditioning.

Stimulus discrimination

Distinguishing between different stimuli.

Extinction

Weakening of conditioned response over time.

Spontaneous recovery

Reappearance of conditioned response after rest.

Operant conditioning

Behavior learned through consequences.

Positive reinforcement

Adding a stimulus to increase behavior.

Negative punishment

Removing a stimulus to decrease behavior.

Chunking

Grouping information to enhance memory retention.

Recall

Repeating information from memory without cues.

Recognition

Identifying previously learned information from options.

Long term memory

Virtually unlimited capacity for storing information.

Declarative memory

Explicit memory requiring conscious awareness.

Nondeclarative memory

Implicit memory not requiring conscious thought.

Semantic memory

Memory for facts and specific information.

Episodic memory

Memory of personal experiences and events.

Rehearsal

Practice that prevents memory decay over time.

Elaboration

Enhancing memory retention through meaningful associations.

Mood dependent memory

Memory retrieval influenced by current emotional state.

Forgetting

Inability to recall information, particularly soon after learning.

Encoding failure

Loss of memory due to ineffective information processing.

Retrieval failure

Inability to access stored memories when needed.

Nurture

Environmental factors influencing individual development.

Nature

Genetic traits present at birth.

Evocative forces

Behavior elicits specific responses from the environment.

Active forces

Intentional actions shaping one's surroundings.

Authoritarian parenting

Strict rules with expected obedience from children.

Permissive parenting

No rules; parents submit to children's demands.

Authoritative parenting

Balanced rules with responsiveness to children's needs.

ZPD

Zone of potential development in a child.

Scaffolding

Supportive framework for building skills or knowledge.

Harlow's monkey study

Research indicating effects of attachment on development.

Enriched environments

Stimulating surroundings promoting growth and learning.

Stranger anxiety

Fear of unfamiliar people, starting around 7-8 months.