ap psych

Psychology

The study of how people think, feel, and behave.

Structuralism

Focused on breaking down mental processes into the most basic parts (Wundt, Titchener).

Functionalism

Emphasized the purpose of behavior and mental processes (James).

Behaviorism

Studies behavior without reference to mental processes (Watson, Skinner).

Humanistic Psychology

Focuses on personal growth and free will (Rogers, Maslow).

Cognitive Psychology

Studies how we think, remember, and process information.

Biopsychosocial Approach

Combines biology, psychology, and social factors to understand behavior.

Case Study

In-depth study of one person or group.

Naturalistic Observation

Watching behavior in real-world settings.

Survey

A questionnaire to gather information on people's thoughts/behaviors.

Experiment

A controlled test of a hypothesis.

Independent Variable

What the experimenter changes.

Dependent Variable

What is measured.

Control Group

Doesn't get the treatment.

Experimental Group

Gets the treatment.

Random Assignment

Randomly placing participants in groups to avoid bias.

Neuron

Nerve cell that sends signals in the body.

Dendrites

Receive messages from other neurons.

Axon

Sends messages to other neurons.

Myelin Sheath

Covers the axon and speeds up messages.

Synapse

Gap between neurons where neurotransmitters are released.

Neurotransmitters

Chemicals that send messages between neurons (e.g., dopamine, serotonin).

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

All other nerves.

Somatic Nervous System

Controls voluntary movements.

Autonomic Nervous System

Controls involuntary actions (heartbeat, breathing).

Sympathetic NS

Activates 'fight or flight.'

Parasympathetic NS

Calms you down.

Endocrine System

Glands that release hormones.

Amygdala

Emotion (especially fear).

Hippocampus

Memory.

Hypothalamus

Hunger, thirst, temperature.

Thalamus

Sensory relay station.

Cerebellum

Balance and coordination.

Frontal Lobe

Thinking, planning, decision-making.

Parietal Lobe

Touch and body position.

Occipital Lobe

Vision.

Temporal Lobe

Hearing.

Sensation

Detecting physical energy (e.g., light, sound).

Perception

How we interpret sensory information.

Absolute Threshold

Minimum stimulus needed to detect something.

Difference Threshold

Smallest change you can detect.

Weber’s Law

The bigger the stimulus, the bigger the change needed to notice it.

Sensory Adaptation

Getting used to a constant stimulus (like a smell).

Top-down Processing

Using experience to interpret info.

Bottom-up Processing

Using sensory input to form perception.

Selective Attention

Focusing on one thing while ignoring others.

Gestalt Principles

We see whole forms, not just parts (e.g., proximity, similarity).

Depth Perception

Seeing in 3D.

Retina

Back of the eye that detects light.

Cochlea

Part of the inner ear that processes sound.

Classical Conditioning

Learning by association (Pavlov).

Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

Naturally causes response.

Unconditioned Response (UR)

Natural response.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

Learned trigger.

Conditioned Response (CR)

Learned reaction.

Operant Conditioning

Learning based on consequences (Skinner).

Reinforcement

Increases behavior.

Punishment

Decreases behavior.

Shaping

Reinforcing closer steps to a desired behavior.

Observational Learning

Learning by watching others (Bandura).

Memory

Storing and retrieving information.

Encoding

Getting info into memory.

Storage

Keeping info over time.

Retrieval

Getting info out.

Sensory Memory

Brief initial memory from senses.

Short-term Memory (Working Memory)

Limited info held for a short time.

Long-term Memory

Permanent, unlimited storage.

Explicit Memory

Conscious recall (facts, experiences).

Implicit Memory

Unconscious memory (skills).

Recall

Retrieving info without clues (e.g., FRQ).

Recognition

Identifying info with clues (e.g., MCQ).

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts.

Confirmation Bias

Looking for info that supports your beliefs.

Belief Perseverance

Sticking with beliefs even after evidence is disproven.

Functional Fixedness

Seeing objects only in their usual use.

Nature vs. Nurture

Genetics vs. environment.

Piaget’s Stages

Stages of cognitive development (Sensorimotor, Preoperational, Concrete Operational, Formal Operational).

Erikson’s Stages

Social development stages (e.g., identity vs. role confusion).

Attachment

Emotional bond between child and caregiver.

Parenting Styles

Different approaches to raising children: Authoritative, Authoritarian, Permissive, and Neglectful.

Drive-Reduction Theory

We act to reduce needs (e.g., hunger).

Homeostasis

Maintaining balance.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Basic needs → self-fulfillment.

James-Lange Theory

Body reacts → we feel emotion.

Cannon-Bard Theory

Body and emotion happen together.

Schachter-Singer (Two-Factor) Theory

Body reacts + we label it = emotion.

Personality

A person’s typical thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.

Big Five Traits

OCEAN (Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism).

Freud's Psychoanalysis

Theory of personality development based on unconscious drives.

Id

Part of personality that wants pleasure (devil).

Ego

Part of personality that balances reality (balance).

Superego

Part of personality that represents moral standards (angel).

Defense Mechanisms

Unconscious ways to reduce anxiety (e.g., repression, denial).

Psychological Disorder

A significant disturbance in behavior/thoughts.

DSM-5

Book that classifies disorders.

Anxiety Disorders

Includes phobias, panic disorder, and GAD.

Depressive Disorders

Ongoing sadness and lack of interest.

Bipolar Disorder

Mood swings between highs and lows.

Schizophrenia

Delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thinking.