ap psych

Unit 1: Scientific Foundations of Psychology

  • Psychology: The study of how people think, feel, and behave.

  • Structuralism: Focused on breaking down mental processes into the most basic parts (Wundt, Titchener).

  • Functionalism: Emphasized the purpose of behavior and mental processes (James).

  • Behaviorism: Studies behavior without reference to mental processes (Watson, Skinner).

  • Humanistic Psychology: Focuses on personal growth and free will (Rogers, Maslow).

  • Cognitive Psychology: Studies how we think, remember, and process information.

  • Biopsychosocial Approach: Combines biology, psychology, and social factors to understand behavior.

  • Case Study: In-depth study of one person or group.

  • Naturalistic Observation: Watching behavior in real-world settings.

  • Survey: A questionnaire to gather information on people’s thoughts/behaviors.

  • Experiment: A controlled test of a hypothesis.

  • Independent Variable: What the experimenter changes.

  • Dependent Variable: What is measured.

  • Control Group: Doesn’t get the treatment.

  • Experimental Group: Gets the treatment.

  • Random Assignment: Randomly placing participants in groups to avoid bias.

Unit 2: Biological Bases of Behavior

  • Neuron: Nerve cell that sends signals in the body.

  • Dendrites: Receive messages from other neurons.

  • Axon: Sends messages to other neurons.

  • Myelin Sheath: Covers the axon and speeds up messages.

  • Synapse: Gap between neurons where neurotransmitters are released.

  • Neurotransmitters: Chemicals that send messages between neurons (e.g., dopamine, serotonin).

  • Central Nervous System (CNS): Brain and spinal cord.

  • Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): All other nerves.

  • Somatic Nervous System: Controls voluntary movements.

  • Autonomic Nervous System: Controls involuntary actions (heartbeat, breathing).

    • Sympathetic NS: Activates “fight or flight.”

    • Parasympathetic NS: Calms you down.

  • Endocrine System: Glands that release hormones.

  • Brain Structures:

    • Amygdala: Emotion (especially fear).

    • Hippocampus: Memory.

    • Hypothalamus: Hunger, thirst, temperature.

    • Thalamus: Sensory relay station.

    • Cerebellum: Balance and coordination.

    • Frontal Lobe: Thinking, planning, decision-making.

    • Parietal Lobe: Touch and body position.

    • Occipital Lobe: Vision.

    • Temporal Lobe: Hearing.

Unit 3: Sensation and Perception

  • Sensation: Detecting physical energy (e.g., light, sound).

  • Perception: How we interpret sensory information.

  • Absolute Threshold: Minimum stimulus needed to detect something.

  • Difference Threshold (Just Noticeable Difference): Smallest change you can detect.

  • Weber’s Law: The bigger the stimulus, the bigger the change needed to notice it.

  • Sensory Adaptation: Getting used to a constant stimulus (like a smell).

  • Top-down Processing: Using experience to interpret info.

  • Bottom-up Processing: Using sensory input to form perception.

  • Selective Attention: Focusing on one thing while ignoring others.

  • Gestalt Principles: We see whole forms, not just parts (e.g., proximity, similarity).

  • Depth Perception: Seeing in 3D.

  • Retina: Back of the eye that detects light.

  • Cochlea: Part of the inner ear that processes sound.

Unit 4: Learning

  • Classical Conditioning: Learning by association (Pavlov).

    • Unconditioned Stimulus (US): Naturally causes response.

    • Unconditioned Response (UR): Natural response.

    • Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Learned trigger.

    • Conditioned Response (CR): Learned reaction.

  • Operant Conditioning: Learning based on consequences (Skinner).

    • Reinforcement: Increases behavior.

      • Positive: Add something good.

      • Negative: Take away something bad.

    • Punishment: Decreases behavior.

      • Positive: Add something bad.

      • Negative: Take away something good.

  • Shaping: Reinforcing closer steps to a desired behavior.

  • Observational Learning: Learning by watching others (Bandura).

Unit 5: Cognitive Psychology

  • Memory: Storing and retrieving information.

    • Encoding: Getting info into memory.

    • Storage: Keeping info over time.

    • Retrieval: Getting info out.

  • Sensory Memory: Brief initial memory from senses.

  • Short-term Memory (Working Memory): Limited info held for a short time.

  • Long-term Memory: Permanent, unlimited storage.

  • Explicit Memory: Conscious recall (facts, experiences).

  • Implicit Memory: Unconscious memory (skills).

  • Recall: Retrieving info without clues (e.g., FRQ).

  • Recognition: Identifying info with clues (e.g., MCQ).

  • Heuristics: Mental shortcuts.

  • Confirmation Bias: Looking for info that supports your beliefs.

  • Belief Perseverance: Sticking with beliefs even after evidence is disproven.

  • Functional Fixedness: Seeing objects only in their usual use.

Unit 6: Developmental Psychology

  • Nature vs. Nurture: Genetics vs. environment.

  • Piaget’s Stages:

    • Sensorimotor: Learning through senses (0–2).

    • Preoperational: Symbols and egocentrism (2–7).

    • Concrete Operational: Logical thinking (7–11).

    • Formal Operational: Abstract thinking (12+).

  • Erikson’s Stages: Social development (e.g., identity vs. role confusion).

  • Attachment: Emotional bond between child and caregiver.

  • Parenting Styles:

    • Authoritative: Warm but firm (best outcomes).

    • Authoritarian: Strict, less warmth.

    • Permissive: Warm but no rules.

    • Neglectful: Uninvolved.

Unit 7: Motivation, Emotion, and Personality

  • Drive-Reduction Theory: We act to reduce needs (e.g., hunger).

  • Homeostasis: Maintaining balance.

  • Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: Basic needs → self-fulfillment.

  • James-Lange Theory: Body reacts → we feel emotion.

  • Cannon-Bard Theory: Body and emotion happen together.

  • Schachter-Singer (Two-Factor) Theory: Body reacts + we label it = emotion.

  • Personality: A person’s typical thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.

    • Big Five Traits: OCEAN (Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism).

  • Freud’s Psychoanalysis:

    • Id: Wants (devil).

    • Ego: Reality (balance).

    • Superego: Morals (angel).

    • Defense Mechanisms: Unconscious ways to reduce anxiety (e.g., repression, denial).

Unit 8: Clinical Psychology

  • Psychological Disorder: A significant disturbance in behavior/thoughts.

  • DSM-5: Book that classifies disorders.

  • Anxiety Disorders: Includes phobias, panic disorder, and GAD.

  • Depressive Disorders: Ongoing sadness and lack of interest.

  • Bipolar Disorder: Mood swings between highs and lows.

  • Schizophrenia: Delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thinking.

  • Personality Disorders: Enduring, inflexible behavior patterns.

  • Therapies:

    • Cognitive Therapy: Changes negative thinking.

    • Behavioral Therapy: Changes learned behaviors.

    • Psychoanalytic Therapy: Looks at unconscious issues.

    • Humanistic Therapy: Focuses on growth and self-acceptance.

    • Biomedical Therapy: Medication or medical procedures.

Unit 9: Social Psychology

  • Attribution Theory: Explaining behavior as due to traits or situation.

  • Fundamental Attribution Error: Overestimating traits, underestimating the situation.

  • Conformity: Changing to fit in with a group (Asch study).

  • Obedience: Following orders (Milgram study).

  • Social Loafing: Doing less in a group.

  • Groupthink: Group decisions without considering alternatives.

  • Bystander Effect: Less likely to help when others are around.

  • Prejudice: Unjustified negative attitude toward a group.

  • Discrimination: Acting on prejudice.

  • Cognitive Dissonance: Mental discomfort when actions and beliefs don’t match.