AQA English Language - Pragmatics and Discourse

Contextual factors

1. Ways in which audience is addressed

2. Genre

3. Distinctive linguistic features

Discourse Structure

Refers to the patterns within a text

Discourse markers

Words and phrases that show when the conversation is moving from one topic to the next

Prosodic features

Methods chosen to demonstrate changes in speech such as pitch, intonation or stress. Writers often do this with italics or punctuation.

Phatic communion

Small talk devoid of serious content

Openings

Involve soliciting of information and thus are based around questions and answers. They will often be phatic in nature.

Adjacency pairs

Always have an opening statement or question which limit the possibilities in the reply

Turn Taking

Conversations reach a transition relevance point. This point in which this happens is usually at the end of linguistic boundaries like sentences, clauses etc

Digression

Deviation from initial topic which will lead back again

Interruption

Speaker continues beyond acceptable time

Overlaps

Not necessarily interruptions, may be supportive

Feedback

Might take form of interruption, but usually follows a complete sentence. Non-fluency interjections like “ah” and “hmm” are also common, as well as “uh uh” and uhmhmm” which are positive minimal responses.

Closings

Most conversations have a closing section comprised of pre-closing signals which mark that the exchange is reaching its end

Frozen register

Language of extreme formality and would place great distance between the speaker and the listener

Formal register

Less formal than frozen, still used 3rd person but with less elaborate vocabulary

Consultative register

Neutral kind of language used in polite conversation between adult strangers

Casual register

Used between friends and acquaintances. Doesn’t create distance, but proximity.

Intimate

Used between very close friends or family groups

HP Grice - Maxims (1975)

Saw co-operation as the foundation of any conversation. Dialogue continues with shared assumption of common aims and agreed ways of reaching them. He expanded on “co-operation principle” with 4 maxims:

1. Quantity - saying neither more than less than needed

2. Relevance - should be relevant to topic

3. Manner - avoid ambiguity or unnecessary complexity

4. Quality - Be truthful

Accommodation Theory - Giles

Where a speaker attempts to create either closeness or distance between themselves and they person they’re addressing

Downward Convergence - A speaker worried their accent may set them apart may emphasise regional elements in order to remain one of the group

Upward Convergence - When a speaker attempts to eliminate regional traces from their accent. More common with people seeking employment.

Irving Goffman and ‘Face’ (1955)

Defined the way in which we present an image of ourselves to others in a given context or ‘face’

A speaker’s knowledge or emotional state may be challenged in what is known as a ‘face threatening act’

Showing regard for face is a form of politeness such as -

1. Appropriate forms of address

2. Speech reflecting social relationships between participants

3. Appropriate levels of formality

4. Following conventions for adjacency pairs, openings and endings

5. Turn taking

Brown and Levinson (1987)

Linguists expanded on Goffman’s theory with the concepts of positive and negative politeness

Positive politeness: To compliment or attempt to reduce social distance between participants

Negative politeness: a speaker shows respect for their audience and does not wish to impose

Lakoff and ‘Politeness Principle’

Lakoff’s 3 rules of politeness principle which leads to success in speech interactions:

1. Don’t impose - use apologetic, respectful language

2. Give options - avoid making the audience defensive

3. Make the receiver feel good - flatter and appreciate other participants

Written discourse

Genre, Audience, Purpose