Chapter 10: Blood

1. Transport of gases, nutrients, and waste products
2. Transport of processed molecules
3. Transport of regulatory molecules
4. Regulation of pH and osmosis
5. Maintenance of body temperature
6. Protection against foreign substances
7. Clot formation

FUNCTIONS OF BLOOD

‑ type of connective tissue that consists of a liquid matrix
containing cells and cell fragments
‑ O2 content determines color
‑ Temperature slightly higher than rest of body

Blood

Liquid matrix

plasma

Leukocytes

White blood cells

Erythrocytes

Red blood cells

Thrombocytes

Platelets

Total blood volume in females

4-5L

Total blood volume in males

5-6L

a pale yellow fluid that consists of 91% water, 7% proteins, and 2% other components, such as ions, nutrients, gases, waste products, and regulatory substances

PLASMA

58%; most abundant protein in blood; helps maintain water balance

albumins

38%; helps immune system

globulins

4%; a clotting factor and once activated in blood, it will cause it to solidify, clot, or coagulate

fibrinogen

Activation of clotting factors results in the conversion of fibrinogen to?
It is a threadlike protein that forms blood clots

fibrin

plasma without the clotting factors

Serum

Acts as a solvent and suspending medium for blood components

Water

Maintain osmotic pressure (albumin)
Destroy foreign substances (antibodies and
complement)
Transport molecules (albumin and
globulins)
Form clots (fibrinogen)

Proteins

Involved in osmotic pressure (Na+ and Cl-), membrane potentials (Na+ and K+), and acid-base balance (hydrogen, hydroxide, and bicarbonate ions)

Ions

Source of energy and “building blocks” of more complex molecules (glucose, amino acids, triglycerides)

Nutrients

Involved in aerobic respiration (oxygen and carbon dioxide)

Gases

Breakdown products of protein metabolism (urea and ammonia salts) and red blood cells (bilirubin)

Waste products

Catalyze chemical reactions (enzymes) and stimulate or inhibit many body functions (hormones)

Regulatory substances

the process that produces formed elements

Hematopoiesis

All the formed elements of blood are derived from a single population of cells

stem cells or hemocytoblasts (original cell line)

occurs in liver, thymus gland, spleen, lymph nodes, and red bone marrow

Fetus

mainly in bone marrow

After birth

‑ also called Erythrocytes
‑ most abundant formed element (95%)
‑ biconcave disk; no nucleus (lost during development)
‑ contain hemoglobin which is responsible for its red color
‑ live for about 120 days in males and 110 days in females
‑ transport oxygen from the lungs to the various tissues of the body and transport carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs

Red Blood Cells

found primarily inside red blood cells, catalyzes a reaction that converts carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O) into a hydrogen ion (H+) and a bicarbonate ion (HCO3−)

Carbonic anhydrase

‑ main component of erythrocytes
‑ transports O2
‑ each globin protein is attached to a heme molecule
‑ each heme contains one iron atom
‑ O2 binds to iron

Hemoglobin

hemoglobin with an O2 attached

Oxyhemoglobin

‑ also called Leukocytes
‑ larger than RBC
‑ function to:
• protect the body against microorganism
• remove dead cells and debris by phagocytosis

White Blood Cells

those with large cytoplasmic granules
• Neutrophil
• Eosinophil
• Basophil

Granulocytes

those with very small cytoplasmic granules that can’t be seen by the light microscope

Agranulocytes

-20-25%
-small agranulocyte that is responsible for antibody reactions
-increase during viral infection
-several different types (T cells and B
cells)

Lymphocytes

-3-8%
-largest of all WBC
-seen in chronic infections and become macrophages when they rich the tissues

Monocytes

-60-70%
-most abundant
-remain in blood for 10-12 hours
then move to tissues
-multi-lobed (2-4) granules that increase during bacterial infection

Neutrophils

- 2-4%
-orange to red appearing granulocyte that is found in allergic reactions
-two indistinct lobes
-reduce inflammation associated with allergies, and worm parasites

Eosinophil

-0.5-1%
-least common of all WBC
-with dark blue to dark violet granules
-release histamine and heparin

Basophil

‑ also called Thrombocytes
‑ blood clotting cells
‑ come from megakaryocyte which is a giant cell that fragments
‑ function is to close and repair wounds by forming platelet plug (or thrombus)

Platelets

an immediate but temporary constriction of a blood vessel that results when smooth muscle within the wall of the vessel contracts (ANS, thromboxane, endothelin)

Vascular Spasm

an accumulation of platelets that can seal up a small break in a blood vessel

Platelet plug

occurs when von Willebrand factor connects exposed collagen to platelets

platelet adhesion

ADP, thromboxanes, and other chemicals are released and activate other platelets

platelet release reaction

fibrinogen forms bridges between the fibrinogen receptors of numerous platelets, resulting
in a platelet plug

Platelet aggregation

‑ or coagulation
‑ blood can be transformed from a liquid to a gel

Blood Clotting

network of thread-like proteins called fibrin that trap blood cells and fluid; depends on clotting factors

Clot

proteins in plasma; only activated following injury; made in liver; require vitamin K

Clotting factors

-prevent clotting factors from forming clots under normal conditions (Ex: Heparin and
antithrombin)

Anticoagulants

-condensing a clot; serum in plasma is squeezed out of clot; helps enhance healing

Clot retraction

process of dissolving clot; plasminogen (plasma protein) breaks down clot (fibrin)

Fibrinolysis

inactive plasma protein

plasminogen

plasminogen is converted to its active form

plasmin

a bacterial enzyme, and t-PA, produced through genetic engineering, have been used successfully to dissolve clots

Streptokinase

transfer of blood or blood components from one individual to another

transfusion

introduction of a fluid other than blood, such as a saline or glucose solution, into the blood

infusion

characterized by clumping or rupture of blood cells and clotting within blood vessels

transfusion reactions

molecules on surface of erythrocytes

Antigens

proteins in plasma

Antibodies

clumping of the cells

agglutination

rupture of the red blood cells

hemolysis

named according to antigen (ABO)

Blood groups

used to categorize human blood

ABO Blood Group

is the person who gives blood

donor

is the person who receives

recipient

What is the population rate or RH+

95-85%

When you have Rh antigens you are?

RH Positive

‑ occurs when mother produces anti-Rh antibodies that cross placenta and agglutination and hemolysis of fetal erythrocytes occurs
‑ can be fatal to fetus
‑ prevented if mother is treated with RhoGAM which contains antibodies against Rh antigens

Hemolytic Disease of Newborn

determines the ABO and Rh blood groups of a blood sample

Blood typing

the donor’s blood cells are mixed with the recipient’s serum, and the donor’s serum is mixed with the recipient’s cells

Crossmatch

provides information such as RBC count, hemoglobin, hematocrit, and WBC count

Complete Blood Count

determines amount of hemoglobin; low hemoglobin indicates anemia

Hemoglobin measurement

Normal amount of hemoglobin in male

14–18 g per 100 mL of blood

Normal amount of hemoglobin in female

12–16 g per 100 mL of blood

% of total blood volume composed of RBC

Hematocrit

measures the total number of WBC

White blood count

Normal white blood count

5000–9000 WBCs per microliter of blood

low WBC count; caused by radiation, chemotherapy drugs, tumors, vital infections

Leukopenia

high WBC count; caused by infections and leukemia

Leukocytosis

cancer of the red marrow characterized by abnormal production of one or more of the white blood cell types, can cause leukocytosis

Leukemia

normal platelet count

250,000–400,000 platelets per microliter of blood

platelet count is greatly reduced, resulting in chronic bleeding through small vessels and capillaries

thrombocytopenia

calculates how long it takes for the blood to start clotting, which is normally 9–12 seconds

Prothrombin time measurement

measures the composition of materials dissolved or suspended in the plasma

Blood Chemistry

-a deficiency of normal hemoglobin in the blood, resulting from a decreased number of red blood cells, a decreased amount of hemoglobin in each red blood cell, or both

Anemia

insufficient intake or absorption of iron or from excessive iron loss

Iron-deficiency anemia

inadequate folate in the diet

Folate deficiency

caused by inadequate vitamin B12

Pernicious anemia

results from a loss of blood due to trauma, ulcers, or excessive menstrual bleeding

Hemorrhagic anemia

occurs when red blood cells rupture or are destroyed at an excessive rate

Hemolytic anemia

a hereditary disease resulting in reduced rates of hemoglobin production

Thalassemia

a hereditary disease found mostly in people of African descent. The RBC assume a rigid sickle shape and plug up small blood vessels

Sickle-cell anemia

overabundance of red blood cells due to decreased blood volume, as may result from dehydration, diuretics, or burns

Relative erythrocytosis

stem cell defect of unknown cause; results in overproduction of red blood cells, granulocytes, and platelets

Primary erythrocytosis (polycythemia vera)

overabundance of red blood cells resulting from decreased oxygen supply, as occurs at high altitudes, in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, or in congestive heart failure

Secondary erythrocytosis

clotting throughout the vascular system, followed by bleeding; may develop when normal regulation of clotting by anticoagulants is overwhelmed, as occurs due to massive tissue damage

Disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC)

most common inherited bleeding disorder; platelet plug formation and the contribution of activated platelets to blood clotting are impaired

Von Willebrand disease

genetic disorder in which clotting is abnormal or absent; each of the several types results from deficiency or dysfunction of a clotting factor

Hemophilia

spread of microorganisms and their toxins by the blood; often the result of a medical procedure, such as insertion of an intravenous tube

Septicemia (blood poisoning)

caused by a protozoan introduced into blood by the Anopheles mosquito; symptoms include chills and fever produced by toxins released when the protozoan causes red blood cells to rupture

Malaria

caused by Epstein-Barr virus, which infects salivary glands and lymphocytes; symptoms include fever, sore throat, and swollen lymph nodes

Infectious mononucleosis

caused by human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which infects lymphocytes and suppresses immune system

Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS)