AP Psychology United 2.2: Problem Solving and Intelligence

Concepts

Mental groupings or categories based and formed by items sharing similarities

• Formal = strict rules for an item (squares have 4 sides)

• Informal = common rules (School does not mean house)

Prototypes

A mental image of the best example of a category

• When picturing a dog you typically picture a golden retriever, beagle, or your own dog

Executive functions

Cognitive skills that work together, enabling us to generate, organize, plan, and implement goal directed behavior

• Helping us solve problems and make decisions efficiently

• We need help improving these, which is where algorithms and heuristics come into play

• Ex: Writing a grocery list

Algorithm

A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem

• Ex: Solving a math problem → formula

Heuristic

A simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently

• Usually speedier but also more error prone than algorithms

• Ex: Jumping to conclusions

Representative Heuristic

Based on prototypes, making assumptions based on past experiences

Availability Heuristic

Based on information that you have present

• Ex: Thinking plane crashes are common because you see it in the news, when in reality it is really rare

Confirmation bias

A tendency to focus only on information that supports our beliefs

Overconfidence

Your confidence is greater than your actual abilities

Sunk-cost fallacy

We stick to a plan because we’ve invested our time, even though switching to a new approach could save us time

• Ex: If you’ve spent two years in a relationship its hard to end it because you’ve spent so much time with them

Brief persistence

Clinging to personal beliefs even if new info proves you wrong

• Ex: Being told that a political candidate did something bad but you still decide to vote for them

Framing

When an issue or question is presented a certain way in order to push a certain meaning

• Ex: 10% of you will fail VS 90% of you will pass

Brief bias

When existing beliefs distort or affect the interpretation of new information

• If you learn something incorrectly, then it will affect the way you learn new info

• Ex: Learning 2 + 2 = 5 will make algebra harder

Fixation

Inability to see a problem from a new perspective

Mental set

Tendency to approach a problem using the same method, or what was successful in the past

• Ex: Getting a new teacher → need to adjust based on their teaching style

Functional fixedness

Tendency of seeing objects as only having one function

• Ex: Seeing a paperclip as only a way to bring papers together when it has different functions

Gambler’s fallacy

Predicting a random event based on previous random events

• Ex: Person flips a coin 6 times and each time gets head, person thinks next time must be tails, but each time chance is still 50%

Stereotypes

A prototype of certain racial groups that a person unconsciously uses to judge individuals in that group

Schemas

Concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

• Assimilation and accomodation

Assimilation

Interpreting / improving existing info thanks to new but similar information

• Ex: Seeing dalmation for the first time → adds to prototype that its a dog

Accomodation

Adapting our current schemas based on news information that contradicts old information

• Ex: Seeing a cow → thinking its a dog → having to adjust

• Not all black and white, 4 legged animals are dogs

• Have to change idea of dog and create concept of cow

Creativity

The ability to produce novel and valuable ideas

5 Components of Creativity: Expertise

Well developed base of knowledge—mental building blocks

5 Components of Creativity: Imaginative thinking skills

The ability to see things in new ways, make connections

5 Components of Creativity: A venturesome personality

Seeks new experiences, tolerates ambiguity and risk, and perseveres in overcoming obstacles

5 Components of Creativity: Intrinsic motivation

Driven by interest, challenge, passion, etc

5 Components of Creativity: A creative environment

Sparks, supports, and refines creative ideas

Convergent thinking

Looking to obtain one correct answer to a problem

• Pros: More logical than creative → one answer

• Cons: Can be limiting

• Ex: Solving a math problem, building a lego set exactly as instructions say

Divergent thinking

Find several different solutions to the same problem

• Pros: Multiple possible answers, accesses creativity, out-of-the-box solutions

• Cons: Can be more difficult

• Ex: Doing research, using lego pieces to build whatever you want

Intelligence

Ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations

• Differs from culture to culture

• 2 Main theories

  • General Intelligence

  • Multiple Intelligences

General Intelligence

Basic, sweeping intelligence predicts our abilities in varied academic areas

• Developed by Charles Spearman

• G Factor = general intelligence

• Single g factor was representative for each type of mental ability

• Ex: If you are good at music then you must mean you are good at math

Factor analysis

A statistical procedure that identifies relationships or clusters of mental abilities Spearman called factors

• Ex: If you scored high in IQ you would be considered successful no matter what

Pros of General Intelligence

• Abilities such as verbal and spatial are correlated

• Intelligence may be made up of many parts

Weaknesses of General Intelligence

• Human abilities are too diverse to be under one umbrella

• Personal anecdotes

Savant Syndrome

Someone with exceptional, specific skills, but otherwise limited intelligence

Multiple Intelligences

8 independent intelligences, included a broad range of skills beyond traditional school smarts

• Howard Gardner developed this theory

• One may excel in math but struggling with reading

The 8 Independent Intelligences

• Linguistic

• Logico-mathemtical

• Muscial

• Spatial (architect)

• Bodily-kinesthetic (dancing)

• Naturalist (science)

• Interpersonal (other people)

• Intrapersonal (self)

Pros of Multiple Intelligences

• Intelligence is much more than simple verbal or mathematical skills, other abilites are equally as important to human adaptability

Weaknesses of Multiple Intelligences

• Should all our abilities be considered intelligences? Should some be called less vital talents instead?

L.L. Thurstone’s Primary Mental Abilities Theory

• Word fluency

• Verbal comprehension

• Spatial ability

• Perceptual speed

• Numerical ability

• Inductive reasoning

• Memory

• These scores were averaged, leading to g factor

Robert Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory

There were 3 types of intelligences

• Creative = using previous info in new situations

  • Application and adaption

• Analytical = comparing, evaluation

  • Book smart

• Practical = managing every day tasks

  • Street smarts, common sense

Brain size and complexity studies

• Some evidence to show intelligence correlates with brain size

• More evidence for size and activity in particular areas, such as frontal lobe and parietal lobe

• Highly educated people die with more synapses (neural connections) than less educated people

Neural plasticity with kids

• Highly intelligent people differ in neuroplasticity

• Thinner contex at age 7 that thickens up at age 13

• Larger window for develop

Gray matter vs. white matter (brain scans)

• More gray matter (neural cell bodies) than white matter (axons and dendrites) linked to higher intelligence

• Especially if it is an area involved with memory, attention, or language

Neurological speed

The speed at which you make connections / perceive things

• Quicker perception, higher score on IQ

• When we process perceptions more quickly it is shown in our brainwaves

• Brainwaves are faster when highly intelligent people perform simple tests

Intelligence testing

A method for assessing a person’s mental abilities through the comparison of others

• Throughout history, consensus about how to define and measure intelligence continues to be elusive and subject to bias

• Comes in forms of IQ tests or the SAT

Francis Galton

Inspired by Darwin’s studies, believed he could study or prove biological intelligence

• Some of his data and tests still used

• Founded eugenics

Eugenics

Discriminatory movement that proposed measuring human traits and encouraging only those deemed “fit” to reproduce

• Science attempts to be objective, but individual scientists are still affected by their own assumptions, especially in intelligence testing

Alfred Binet

Wanted to classify children based on intellectual ability to determine what classes they needed in school

• Felt all children do not develop at the same pace

• Developed the concept of mental age

Mental age

Level of performance typically associated with children of a certain chronological age

• Ex: Average 10 year old would have a mental age of 10, if they were behind their mental age would be 8, if they were ahead their mental age would be 12

Lewis Terman

Adapted Binet’s testing for U.S. use

• Known as Stanford-Binet test

• Also a eugencist—test were used to vet immigrants and army recruits during WWI—leads to racial discrimination

William Stern

Wrote the socring criteria for the Stanford-Binet test through the development of an intelligence quotient

• Mental age / chronological age x 100

Intelligence quotient

Originally defined by mental / chronological age, but today it is measured by relative performance compared to the average

• Originally measurement worked well for children but not for adults

What are IQ scores used for today?

Used to identify students for education services

• Ex: Special education or gifted

• One of the more popular ones is: Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)

Aptitude test

Designed to make predicitions about future performances

• Ex: SAT tests—predictor for college

• Thinly veiled IQ tests

Achievement test

Designed to test what a person has already learned or mastered

• Ex: A unit test you take in class

Psychometrics

Scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits

• Make and analyze multiple forms of psychological testing, from intelligence to personality

• Intelligence tests must adhere to psychometric principles of standardization, reliability, and validity

Standardization

Defining uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group

• Ex: AP Exam, if you score a 5, you received the score compared to other students who took the exam

• Done to create a normal distribution

• Most get a 3, fewer gets 4s/2s, etc

• Ex: Teacher having a script and set up for the SAT

Normal curve

Bell shaped curve that includes a normal distribution score

• Half above average, half below

Mean, Median, and Mode

• Mean = average score

• Median = middle score

• Mode = score that appears the most

Standard deviation

How scores deviate or spread from the mean

Normal Distribution for IQ

Standardized and restandardized over time, average will always be 100

• If you were to take IQ test you would be compared to most recent standardization

• By determining a normal we can provide resources to those below and above normal

• IQ score is not objective, its comparative

Norming (norm-referenced test)

Comparing “normal” skill levels to those of individual students of the same age

• A type of standardization

• Developed by creating test items then administering the test to a group that will be used as the basis of comparison

Percentile

The location of a score in a distribution

• Expressed as the percentage of cases with scores equal to or below score

• Ex: If the score is in the 90th percentile, 90% of the scores in the distribution are equal to or lower than that score

Reliability

The extent to which the test yields consistent results

• Process: The test is given multipe times, see how similar results are each time

• Think: A person is reliable if they continue to show up for work each day

• So a test is reliable if each time it is given results are similar

• Ex: WAIS and WISC have a reliability score of +9 (high)

Alternative forms

Giving alternative version of the same test

• If you take test B you should get the same as you would on test A

Split-half

Calculating the score by dividing the test into different parts and then comparing

• Comparing the odd and even number of questions

Test-retest

Giving the same test twice then comparing the score

Validity

The extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to measure

• Reliability does not ensure validity

Content validity

Test measures the content it is supposed to measure

• Ex: If you are in this class you take the AP Psych test not the APUSH test

Construct validity

Test measures specific theory or question

• Ex: Certain questions may be written to specifically test if studnets are paying attention in lectures

Predictive validity

The success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict

• Find the correlation between test scores and criterion behavior

• Predicts future performance of the student

• Ex: Drivers test predicting lack of accidents, SAT predicting college performance

The Flynn Effect

As IQ tests have been restandardized, average intelligence has gone up

• You would be considered higher on the curve if you took the test back in 1930

• Potential Explanations:

  • Higher quality tests

  • Better nutrition = higher intelligence = higher scores

  • Less disease, safer environments

  • Greater investment in education, smaller families

Popular view

The test detects innate intelligence differences as well as performance differences caused by cultural experiences

• Says yes, they are biased—your life experience and education will affect your scores

• Ex: Questions might reference an experience or saying that only those from a certain background might understand

Scientific view

Is the test reliable and valid?

• In this sense more tests are not necessarily biased