PSYCH1001E final exam

Define learning

Any relatively durable change in behaviour or knowledge due to experience. not exclusive to humans

define conditioning

learning connections between events that occur in an organism’s environment.

what are the 2 types of conditioning

1. Classical conditioning: Learning where one stimulus triggers a response originally caused by another stimulus (Pavlov).

2. Operant conditioning: Learning where behavior is shaped by its consequences (Skinner).

what was Pavlov’s experiment

Pavlov observed that dogs began salivating before receiving meat powder. He paired an auditory tone with the meat powder repeatedly (trials) and later found that the tone alone triggered salivation, demonstrating classical conditioning.

what is the basic component of the learning process

Learned associations

defined unconditioned association, stimilus and response

• Unconditioned association: A natural, automatic link (e.g., food causing salivation).

• Unconditioned stimulus (US): Triggers a natural response without learning (e.g., meat powder).

• Unconditioned response (UR): Automatic reaction to the unconditioned stimulus (e.g., salivation).

define conditioned association, stimulus and response

• Conditioned association = a connection/link that is established through
  pairing (conditioning) - E.g., auditory tone and salivation

• Conditioned stimulus= a previously neutral stimulus that now evokes a conditioned response (due to conditioning). e.g Auditory tone

• Conditioned response = a learned response to a conditioned stimulus (due to conditioning). less intense than unconditioned response. e,g Salivation

what is operant conditioning also called

instrumental learning

what is Thorndike’s Law of Effect

• When a response to a stimulus leads to a satisfying outcome, it's more likely to happen again in the same situation.

• Thorndike’s work laid the groundwork for Skinner’s operant conditioning theory.

How do researchers know wether something is reinforcing

observe an increase in the rate of that response in the future

what is Skinner’s box experiment

A controlled setup where animals perform actions (e.g., pressing a lever) to get rewards (like food), used to study operant conditioning.

How does Skinner's Box control and record behavior?

The experimenter sets reinforcement rules (e.g., when a rat gets food). A cumulative recorder tracks the rate of responses over time.

What are the 2 types of reinforcers

• Primary = Naturally rewarding (e.g., food, water, warmth).

• Secondary = Learned rewards linked to primary reinforcers (e.g., money, praise).

what are the processes in conditioning

1. Acquisition: The first stage of learning.

2. Extinction: A learned response fades over time; depends on the context.

3. Stimulus Generalization: Similar stimuli trigger the same response as the original.

4. Stimulus Discrimination: Only the original stimulus triggers the response, not similar ones.

how does acquisition differ in classical and operant conditioning

• Classical: Pair a conditioned stimulus with an unconditioned one until the neutral stimulus causes the same response. Depends on stimuli continuity and importance of the stimuli.

• Operant: Behavior increases with reinforcement, through shaping

what is shaping

Rewarding small steps that get closer to the desired response.

what is stimulus continuity

occur together in time and space

how does extinction differ in classical and operant conditioning

Classical: Conditioned Stimulus is presented alone
until it doesn’t elicit the Conditioned Response anymore
operant: A response gradually stops once reinforcement is stopped

what is Spontaneous recovery

the reappearance of an extinguished response after a period of nonexposure to the conditioned stimulus - evident is classical conditioning

what is Renewal effect

If acquisition occurs in one context and extinction in another, the responding will reappear when placed back in the original context. in both types of conditioning

how does Stimulus Generalization differ in classical and operant conditioning

• Classical: A similar stimulus triggers the same conditioned response (CR).

• Operant: Behavior increases with a stimulus similar to the original cue.

how does Stimulus Discrimination differ in classical and operant conditioning

• Classical: A similar stimulus does not trigger the conditioned response (CR).

• Operant: Behavior does not increase for stimuli similar to the original cue.

what happens when a reinforcement is delayed

conditioning occurs more slowly

what happens when a response is reinforced immediately

it is more likely to be strengthened than when there is a delay

what is Schedule of reinforcement

determines under what conditions a specific response will result in reinforcement

what is continuous reinforcement

When every single time a response is provided it is reinforced

what is partial reinforcement

when a specific response is reinforced only some of the times it occurs

what are Ratio schedules

The organism must respond a set number of times to receive each reinforcer.

what are fixed ratio and variable ratio schedules

• Fixed-ratio schedule: Reinforcer comes after a set number of actions.

• Variable-ratio schedule: Reinforcer comes after a changing number of actions, averaging out to a set number.

what are interval schedules

require a time period to pass between the presentation of reinforcers

what are fixed and variable intervals

• Fixed-interval: Reward comes after a set amount of time passes and the first response is made.

• Variable-interval: Reward comes after a changing amount of time, averaging to a set length, and the first response is made.

what is reinforcement

Makes a response more likely to happen.

• Positive: Adding something rewarding to encourage a response (e.g., buying something fun after a good grade).

• Negative: Removing something unpleasant to encourage a response (e.g., lifting a curfew when a teenager shows responsibility).

what is escape and avoidance learning

• Escape learning: Behavior stops an unpleasant experience.

• Avoidance learning: Behavior prevents an unpleasant experience.

what is punishment

Reduces the likelihood of a behavior.

• Positive punishment: Add something unpleasant (e.g., giving chores for disobedience).

• Negative punishment: Take away something rewarding (e.g., no recess for bad behavior).

what is observational learning

Organisms learn by watching others (models), and this greatly influences how they respond.

who is albert bandura

Significant theorist in observational learning

Argues that reinforcement increases the likelihood a response is performed (vs learned)

what are the basic processes in Observational Learning

• Attention: Focus on someone’s actions and what happens as a result.

• Retention: Remember what you’ve seen so you can use it later.

• Reproduction: Turn what you remember into your own actions.

what are the basic Processes Involved in Memory

• Encoding: Creating a memory.

• Storage: Keeping information in memory over time.

• Retrieval: Accessing information from memory.

define attention

Concentrating on a limited range of stimuli, filtering what enters awareness.

define elaboration, visual imagery and self-referent encoding

• Elaboration: Connecting new info to something you already know.

• Visual imagery: Creating pictures in your mind to remember words.

• Self-referent encoding: Making info personally meaningful to you.

what are the 3 stores of memory

1. Sensory memory: Briefly holds sensory info for a fraction of a second.

2. Short-term memory: Holds limited info for ~20 seconds without rehearsal; chunking can make it seem larger.

3. Long-term memory: Unlimited storage for information

what is rehersal and chunking

• Rehearsal: Repeating information to remember it.

• Chunking: Grouping related items together to improve memory.

what is Miller’s magical number

7 (+/-2) units of information

what is working memory:

limited-capacity system that temporarily holds information and links perception, memory, and action.

Working memory capacity

ability to hold and manipulate information in conscious attention
• Varies by person
• Hereditary
• Associated with complex cognition

what are the 4 Components of Working Memory

1. Phonological rehearsal loop: Repeats information to remember it. It’s the entire short-term memory (STM) system.

2. Visuospatial sketchpad: Holds and manipulates visual images.

3. Executive control system: Manages where your attention goes.

4. Episodic buffer: Combines information from working memory (WM) and long-term memory (LTM).

what is Flashbulb memories

Extremely vivid memories of big events, but they’re not always accurate.

How is Information Stored in Memory

• Clustering: Remembering similar items together.

• Conceptual hierarchies: Classification of items into levels based on shared traits.

• Semantic networks: Concepts linked by pathways that show relationships.

• Schemas: Organized knowledge about objects or situations based on past experiences.

what does training result in

The development of organized knowledge (schemas) that helps experts process information faster, make better decisions, and adapt more easily.

define tulving and retrieval cues

• Tulving: Differentiates between memory being stored (availability) and being able to retrieve it (accessibility).

• Retrieval cues: Clues or triggers that help recall memoriess

define Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

temporary inability to remember something you know, accompanied by the feeling it is just out of reach

what can help aid in memory retrieval

Reinstating the context of an event - context cues

is memory reconrtructive or reproductive:

memory is reconstructive not reproductive

Misinformation effect

Participants' memories of an event are changed by misleading information presented afterward, developed by Elizabeth Loftus.

what is Forgetting rekated to

encoding, storage, or retrieval processes

what is Retention

The amount of material remembered, used to study forgetting.

how is retention measured

• Recall: Reproducing info without help.

• Recognition: Picking out learned info from choices.

• Relearning: Learning old material again to measure time/effort saved.

Why We Forget?

• Ineffective encoding: Pseudoforgetting happens when you can’t remember because you never paid attention to encode it.

• Decay: Memory fades over time as traces weaken.

• Interference: Memories compete and cause forgetting:

• Proactive: Old info blocks new info.

• Retroactive: New info blocks old info.

What is Language?

Uses symbols with meaning and rules to create endless messages, playing a key role in our behavior.

what are properties of Language Systems

• Symbolic: It represents objects, actions, events, and ideas

• Semantic: It is meaningful

• Generative: A small set of symbols can be combined to create endless messages.

• Structured: There are rules that govern how words can be arranged

define Phonemes

• Smallest speech sounds we can hear and distinguish.

• They don’t have meaning. Out of 100 possible, English uses about 40.

define Morphemes

50,000 in English - Includes root words, prefixes, and suffixes

define Semantics and Syntax

Semantics: meaning of words and their combinations- Words can have both a denotation and a connotation.

Syntax: rules for arranging words into sentences - a sentence in English must have a subject and a verb

define denotation and connotation

denotation: dictionary definition

connotation: emotional overtones and secondary implications

Key Milestones in Language Development in Children

1. Initial vocalisations which are similar across languages

2. 3-month-old infants can distinguish phonemes from all languages - disappears between 4 and 12 months

3. 6 months – Babbling starts to resemble the language in the infant’s environment

4. 8 months – Infants begin to recognize and store common words

5. Around the 12 months/1 year mark – First word is typically spoken

6. 18-24 months – Rapid increase in vocabulary

7. End of 2nd year - Children start combining words to make meaningful sentences

8. End of 3rd year - Able to convey complex ideas, plurals, and past tense

what are fast mappaing

when children associate a new word with a concept after only one exposure

what are the 2 types erros toddlers make when using new words

• Overextensions: Using a word for too many things

• Underextensions: Using a word for too few things

define Bilingualism

Being able to speak two languages that use different speech sounds, vocabulary, and grammatical rules

what are advantages and disadvantages of Bilingualism

Advantages:

• Better cognitive flexibility, reasoning, attention, and understanding of language.

• Early development of control and better social skills.

• May help prevent cognitive decline with age.

Disadvantages:

• Slightly slower language processing and verbal fluency.

Theories of How Language is Acquired

• Behaviourist (B. F. Skinner): Learning happens through conditioning and copying others' responses.

• Nativist (Noam Chomsky): Humans have an inborn ability to learn language rules (Language Acquisition Device).

• Interactionist: Language is influenced by both biology and social experiences.

define Problem Solving

Figuring out how to achieve a goal that isn’t easily reachable.

3 Types of Problems:

1. Inducing structure: Find relationships between things

2. Arrangement: Rearrange parts to meet a goal

3. Transformation: Perform steps to achieve a goal.

define Functional fixedness and Mental set

• Functional fixedness: Seeing an object only for its usual use.

• Mental set: Sticking to old strategies that worked before.

Approaches to Problem Solving

1. Trial-and-error

2. Heuristics = shortcuts

3. Taking a break

define incubation effect

when new solutions for a problem are identified after a period of not consciously thinking about it

what are the types of Heuristics

• Forming subgoals = breaking the problem into smaller problems

• Searching for analogies = using a solution to a previous problem to solve the current one

what are differences in cognitive style between Eastern Asian and Western cultures

• Eastern Asian cultures: Focus on the big picture—context and relationships.

• Western cultures: Focus on details—objects and their properties.

what is decision making

Choosing from different alternatives.

Influenced by a variety of factors:

• Choice overload: Too many options can overwhelm.

• Cognitive biases: Thinking patterns that affect decisions.

what influence Choice overload

The decision and The person

Heuristics in Judging Probabilities

1. Availability heuristic: We judge how likely something is by how easily examples come to mind.

2. Representativeness heuristic: We judge how likely something is by how similar it is to a typical example.

3. Ignoring base rates: We overlook how often something actually happens.

4. Conjunction fallacy: We think two things happening together is more likely than just one happening alone.

5. Sunk cost fallacy: We keep going because we’ve already put in time, money, or effort.

what is Dual-process theories

People rely on two different systems of thinking