Chapter 2: Chemical Principles

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91 Terms

1

atomic mass

total number of protons and neutrons in an atom

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isotopes

atoms with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons; they share almost the same chemical properties, but differ in mass and therefore in physical properties

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3

atomic number

number of protons in the nucleus

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4

the elements of life

hydrogen (H), carbon (C), nitrogen (N), & oxygen (O)

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atoms form molecules

through chemical bonds; by combining to fill their outermost shells

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6

valence

the number of missing or extra electrons in the outermost shell

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7

molecules hold together

because the valence electrons of the combining atoms form attractive forces, called chemical bonds, between the atomic nuclei

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compound

molecule that contains two or more kinds of atoms

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9

cations

atoms that lose electrons & become positively charged ions

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10

anions

atoms that gain electrons & become negatively charged ions

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11

ionic bonds

attractions between ions of opposite charge; one atom loses electrons & another gains electrons (aka transfer of electrons)

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12

in neutral atoms

the number of protons equals the number of electrons

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13

ions

charged atoms that have gained or lost electrons

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14

covalent bonds

form when 2 atoms share one or more pairs of electrons; stronger & more common in organisms

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15

molecular mass

the sum of the atomic masses in a molecule

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16

one mole of a substance equals

its molecular mass in grams

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17

dalton (da)

unit of molecular mass

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18

water

inorganic, polar molecule, solvent, hydrogen bonding (absorbs heat)

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19

hydrogen bonds

form when a hydrogen atom that is covalently bonded to an O or N atom is attracted to another N or O atom in another molecule

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20

chemical reactions

involve the making or breaking of bonds between atoms

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21

a change in chemical energy

occurs during a chemical reaction

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22

endergonic

reactions absorb energy

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23

exergonic

reactions release energy

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24

synthesis reactions

occur when atoms, ions, or molecules combine to form new, larger molecules (ex: A + B → AB)

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25

anabolism

the building up (or synthesis) of molecules in a cell; endergonic

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26

decomposition reactions

occur when a molecule is split into smaller molecules, ions, or atoms (ex: AB → A + B)

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27

catabolism

the breakdown (or decomposition) of molecules in a cell; exergonic

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28

pH

expresses the concentration of H+ in a solution

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29

acidity correlates with

the H+ concentration; lower pH

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30

alkalinity (basicity) correlates with

the OH- concentration; higher pH

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31

range most organisms grow best

pH of 6.5-8.5

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32

acids

substances that dissociate into one or more hydrogen ions & one or more negative ions (ex: HCl → H+ + Cl-); has proton (H+) by itself

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bases

substances that dissociate into one or more hydroxide ions & one or more positive ions (ex: NaOH → Na+ + OH-); has hydroxyl (OH-) group by itself

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salts

substances that dissociate into cations and anions, neither of which is H+ or OH- (ex: NaCl → Na+ + Cl-)

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35

inorganic compounds

typically lack carbon; usually small & structurally simple

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organic compounds

commonly contain hydrogen, oxygen, and/or nitrogen in addition to carbon

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carbon skeleton

the chain of carbon atoms in an organic molecule

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functional groups

bond to carbon skeletons & are responsible for most of the chemical properties of a particular organic compound

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<p>hydrocarbons are an example of</p>

hydrocarbons are an example of

organic compounds

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40

Hydrogen atomic number & atomic mass

1 & 1

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Carbon atomic number & atomic mass

6 & 12

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Nitrogen atomic number & atomic mass

7 & 14

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Oxygen atomic number & atomic mass

8 & 16

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44

small organic molecules

can combine into large macromolecules

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45

macromolecules

polymers consisting of many repeating molecules call monomers

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monomers join by

dehydration synthesis or condensation reactions

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carbohydrates

serve as cell structures and cellular energy sources; include sugars and starches, consist of C, H, and O with the formula (CH2O)n; many carbohydrates are isomers

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48

isomers

molecules with the same chemical formula, but different structures

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49

monosaccarhides

simple sugars with 3 to 7 carbon atoms

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50

examples of common monosaccharides

glucose & deoxyribose

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51

disaccharides

formed when 2 monosaccharides are joined in a dehydration synthesis

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dehydration synthesis

the creation of larger molecules from smaller monomers where a water molecule is released

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53

hydrolysis

breaks the bonds of polymers by the addition of water

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disaccharides can be broken down by

the chemical process of hydrolysis

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polysaccharides

consists of tens or hundreds of monosaccharides joined through dehydration synthesis

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polymers of glucose that differ in their bonding & function

starch, glycogen, dextran, & cellulose

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lipids

fats or triglycerides; contain glycerol & fatty acids; formed by dehydration synthesis

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saturated fat

no double bonds in the fatty acids

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unsaturated fat

one or more double bonds in the fatty acids

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cis

H atoms on the same side of the double bond

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trans

H atoms on the opposite sides of the double bond

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complex lipids

contain C,H and O + P, N and/or S

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cell membranes are made up of

complex lipids, called phospholipids

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phospholipids contain

glycerol, two fatty acids, and a phosphate group; also has polar & nonpolar regions

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65

steriods

type of lipid; part of membranes that keeps them fluid; has 4 carbon rings with an —OH group attached to one ring

<p>type of lipid; part of membranes that keeps them fluid; has 4 carbon rings with an —OH group attached to one ring</p>
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66

proteins

made of C, H, O, N & sometimes S; essential in cell structure and function; examples include enzymes, transporter proteins, compose flagella & pili, and some bacterial toxins and cell structures

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enzymes

speed up chemical reactions

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transporter proteins

move chemicals across membranes

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flagella & pili

aid in movement

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70

amino acids

proteins consist of these; contain an alpha-carbon that has an attached: carboxyl group (—COOH), amino group (NH2), & side group; exist in either of 2 stereoisomers D or L

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71

L-form stereoisomers are

most often found in nature

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peptide bonds

are between amino acids and formed by dehydration synthesis

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primary structure of a protein

a polypeptide chain

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74

secondary structure of a protein

occurs when the amino acid chain folds and coil in a helix or pleated sheet

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tertiary structure of a protein

occurs when the helix or sheet folds irregularly, forming disulfide bridges, hydrogen bonds, & ionic bonds between amino acids; folds into 3D shape

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76

quaternary structure of a protein

the arrangement of multiple polypeptide chains (subunits) within a protein complex, where these subunits are held together by non-covalent interactions like hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, and hydrophobic interactions, forming the final functional structure of the protein

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77

conjugated proteins consist of

amino acids and other organic molecules

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proteins can undergo

denaturation

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79

denaturation occurs

when proteins encounter hostile environments such as temperature & pH, and therefore lose their shapes and functions

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80

nucleic acids

consist of nucleotides

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81

nucleotides

consist of a 5-carbon (pentose) sugar, phosphate group, & nitrogen-containing base

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82

purines

A & G

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83

pyrimidines

T, C, & U

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84

nucleosides

consist of pentose & nitrogen-containing base

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85

DNA

deoxyribonucleic acid; contains deoxyribose, exists as a double helix, Adenine hydrogen bonds with Thymine, Guanine hydrogen bonds with Cytosine

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86

the order of the nitrogen-containing bases

forms the genetic instructions fo the organism (organized into codons)

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87

RNA

ribonucleic acid; contains ribose, is single-stranded, Adenine hydrogen bonds to Uracil, Guanine hydrogen bonds to Cytosine

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88

the types of RNA that play a specific role in protein synthesis

rRNA, mRNA, tRNA

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89

adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

made of ribose, adenine, and 3 phosphate groups; is formed from ATPase complex

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90

functions of ATP

stores chemical energy released by some chemical reactions, releases phosphate groups by hydrolysis to liberate useful energy for the cell

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91

components of central dogma

ATP, DNA, amino acids, codons, & ribosomes

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