AP Psychology Final Review

Psychology

The scientific study of the mind and behavior

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to favor information that confirms existing beliefs.

Hindsight Bias

¨I knew it all along¨ even if you are not right the first time

Overconfidence

The tendency to be more confident than correct

Empirical Evidence

Information acquired by observation or experimentation

Scientific Method

A systematic procedure for collecting and analyzing evidence to test hypotheses and draw conclusions.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory

Falsifiable

Capable of being disproved by experimental results

Peer Review

A process by which something proposed is evaluated by a group of experts in that field

Replication

The action of repeating a study, using the same methods to see if the original results can be consistently reproduced

Reliablity

The consistency of a research study or measuring test

Validity

The extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to

The American Psychological Association (APA)

A professional organization representing psychologists in the United States

Quantitative Data

Numerical data that can be measured and compared.

Qualitative Data

Descriptive info which often comes from interviewsm focus groups, or artistic depictionns such as photographs.

Likert Scales

A psychometric scale commonly used in questionnaires, and is the most widely used scale in survey research

Survey Technique

A research tecnique that involves the collection of information from a sample of individuals through their responses to questions

Wording Effect

The effect that question phrasing and order have on a survey

Social Desirability Bias

A tendency to give socially approved answers to questions about oneself

Naturalistic Observation

Observing subjects in their natural environment without manipulation or control by the researcher

Case Study

An in-depth study of a single person, group, event, or community

Correlational Research

A type of non-experimental research method, which studies the relationship between two variables with the help of statistical analysis

Third Veiable Problem

A form confounding in which a third variable leads to a mistaken causual relationshop between two others

Scatterplot

A graphical representation of the values of two variables for a set of data

Correlation Coefficient

A statistical index of the relationship between two things (-1 to +1)

Experimental Method

A method of research where the researcher manipulates one variable, and controls/randomizes the rest of the variables

Independent Variable

The variable that is manipulated or controlled by the researcher

Dependent Variable

The variable that is tested and measured in an experiment

Confounding Variable

A variable that influences both the dependent and independent variables causing a spurious association.

Operational Definition

Specifically defining a variable in terms of how it is measured or manipulated in a study

Experimental Group

The group in an experiment that receives the variable being tested

Control Group

The group in an experiment that does not receive the test variable

Random Assignment

Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preeexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups

Experimenter Bias

A process where the scientist performing the research influence the results, in order to portray a certain outcome

Single-Blind Study

A study in which the participants do not know whether they are in the control group or the experimental group but the researchers do

Double-Blind Study

A study in which neither the participants nor the experimenters know who is receiving a particular treatment

Placebo Condition

A condition in which treatment is not administered but the subject believes that it is administered

Sample

A subset of individuals from a larger population, used to conduct research

Representative Sample

A sample that accurately reflects the characteristics of the population as a whole

Random Sample

A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

Sample Bias

A bias that occurs when a sample is collected in such a way that some members of the intended population are less likely to be included

Generalizability

The extent to which the results of a study can be generalized or extended to others

Statistics

A branch of mathematics dealing with the collection, analysis, interpretation, and presentation of masses of numerical data

Descriptive Statistics

Statistics that summarize the data collected in a study

Inferential Statistics

Statistics that allow one to make predictions and inferences about a population based on a sample of data

Measure of Central Tendency

A statistical measure that identifies a single value as representative of an entire distribution

Normal Curve

A bell-shaped curve with equal distribution

Regression to the Mean

The phenomenon that if a variable is extreme on its first measurement, it will tend to be closer to the average on its second measurement

Positive Skew

This happens when more numbers in a list are on the lower side, but a few really high numbers stretch the average higher

Negative Skew

This is when more numbers in a list are on the higher side, but a few really low numbers pull the average down

Standard Deviation

A measure of the amount of variation or dispersion in a set of values

Percentile Rank

The percentage of scores in its frequency distribution that are equal to or lower than it

Bimodal Distribution

A distribution that shows two different peaks or modes in the frequency of occurences

Statistical Significance

A determination that the observed results in a study are unlikely to have occurred by chance, indicating that the effect is likely real

Effect Sizes

This measures how big the impact of something is in an experiment. For example, it tells us how much a medicine really helps compared to not using the medicine at all

Meta Analysis

A statistical analysis that combines the results of multiple scientific studies

Institutional Review Boards (IRB)

A committee that reviews and approves research involving human subjects, ensuring that ethical standards are met

Informed Consent

Permission granted with the knowledge of the possible consequences, typically that which is given by a patient to a doctor for treatment with full knowledge of the possible risks and benefits

Informed Assent

Agreement by a minor or other parties not able to give legal consent to participate in the activity

Confiedentiality

The requirement that private or sensitive information is not disclosed without the consent of the person who provided it

Deception

The act of misleading or wrongly informing someone about the true nature of a situation

Confederates

Individuals who appears to be participant in a study but are actually part of the research team

Debreifing

Providing participants in a study with a full explanation for the study after its completion, including the purpose and any deceptions used

Evolutionary Perspective

How human behaviors helped our ancestors survive and reproduce

Natural selection

Survival of the fittest, traits enhance survival

Nature

Influence of genetic factors on traits and behaviors

Nurture

Influence of environmental factors on traits and behaviors

Twin studies

Research comparing similarities between identical and fraternal twins to understand the influence of genetic vs environmental factors

Adoption Studies

Studies that compare biologically related people, including those raised apart, to understand genetic influences

Family Studies

Research looking at behavioral traits in families to determine how much is genetic vs environmental

Heredity

Passing of traits from parents to offspring through genes

Genetic Predisposition

Likelihood of developing certain traits or disorders based on genetic factors

Eugenics

Controversial + unethical movement aimed at improving the genetic composition of humans through selective breeding

Cerebral Cortex

Outer layer of brain, involved in complex mental processes such as thinking

Frontal Lobes

Decision-making, problem-solving, and controlling behavior

Prefrontal Cortex

Planning complex behaviors and expressing personality

Executive Functioning

Higher order processes including planning, organizing, and regulating behavior

Motor Cortex

Controls voluntary movements

Parietal Lobes

Processes sensory information like touch and spatial awareness

Somatosensory Cortex

Processes sensory input from various body parts

Occipital Lobes

Responsible for vision

Temporal Lobes

Hearing, memory, and understanding language

Corpus Callosum

Thick band of nerve fibers that connects 2 brain hemispheres

Brainstem

Supports basic life functions like heart rate, breathing, and sleeping

Medulla

Part of brain stem that controls heartbeat and breathing

Reticular Activating System

Regulates wakefulness and sleep-wake transitions

Cerebellum

Coordinates posture, balance, and coodination

Limbic System

Emotion, motivation, and memory

Reward Center

Regulates experience of pleasure

Thalamus

Relay motor and sensory signals to cerebral cortex

Hypothalamus

Regulates body temp, hunger, thirst, etc

Pituitary Gland

Master gland that controls other endocrine glands, regulates growth and metabolism

Hippocampus

Learning and memory

Amygdala

Processing fear and aggression

Nervous System

Body’s communication network of nerve cells

Central Nervous System

Brain and spinal cord

Peripheral Nervous System

Sensory and motor neurons that connect central nervous system to rest of body

Autonomic Nervous System

Involuntary bodily functions

Sympathetic Nervous System

Activates body's fight or flight response

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Conserves energy and restores the body to a calm state