state religion

religion and the state

• religion was tightly intertwined with political, social and civic life.

• roman religion (religio Romana)- polytheistic belief system

• open to absorbing the gods and goddesses- baths dedicated to Minerva Sulis and the worship of the Greek Olympians as some of the primary gods.

• religio-political integration: saw religion as a means to maintain pax deorum (harmony between humans and gods)

public cults and state religion

• included veneration of major gods and goddesses, such as Jupiter, Juno, Minerva and Vesta.

• public religious ceremonies (sacra publica) performed by state officials, priests and priestesses on behalf of the roman people.

civic duty and religion

• religion was seen as an integral part of roman civic life, participation in rituals seen as a civic duty.

• officials and magistrates expected to perform religious duties alongside political responsibilities → essential to welfare and prosperity of the state

imperial cult

• emperors deified and incorporated into state religion through imperial cult. emperors worshipped as divinities in life and elevated to the status of gods after death.

• served as an unifying force- focus of loyalty and reverence

pontifex maximus

means high priest.

• held significant authority and influence in matters of religion and state, ensuring performance of rituals and maintaining religious order.

• held by figures such as Julius Ceasar as well as other roman emperors

augury and divination

divination means finding out about the future.

• sought guidance from signs, omens and oracles.

• Augurs (priests skilled in interpreting signs from nature) played a crucial role in determining the will of the gods and guiding decisions of the state.

• consulyation of oracles such as oracle of delphi common

style and layout

temples were typically built in a distinctive architectural style influenced by ancient greek temples.

• characterised by a rectangular shape, fronted by a portico with columns.

• most common was the peripteral style, featuring a single row of columns surrounding the temple on all sides

• tetrastyle has four columns on each side.

cella/naos

the central chamber of a roman temple

• housed the cult statue of the deity to whom the temple was dedicated.

• often divided into multiple chambers, with the innermost chamber being reserved for the deity.

• in front of the temple, an altar was often present for offering sacrifices.

temple diagram

• entrance of the temple faced east, toward the rising sun, symbolising the deity’s association with light and the celestial realm.

• the orientation of the temple and the placement of its sacred objects were believed to have religious and cosmic significance

decoration and ornamentation

• exterior of temples often displayed decorative friezes, sculptures, and reliefs depicting scenes from mythology, religious stories, or the life of the deity.

• interior walls could be adorned with frescoes, mosaics and intricate stucco work.

temple complexes

• some temples were part of larger religious complexes, known as sanctuaries or precincts.

  • included additional buildings such as treasuries, administrative structures, professional routes, and sacred groves.

  • examples include the Sanctuary of Apollo at Delphi and the Sanctuary of Fortuna Primigenia at Palestrina.

public and private temples

• public temples were funded and maintained by the state or the city, and they served as places of worship for the entire community.

• private temples were constructed by wealthy individuals or families to honour specific deities and were located on private estates.

imperial temples

constructed to venerate the deified emperors and were centres of imperial worship and loyalty.

temple of jupiter in pompeii - where and when

• located in the forum, the centre public square of pompeii.

• situated on a raised platform at the northern end of the forum.

• constructed in the 2nd century bce- underwent subsequent renovations and modifications over time.

temple of jupiter in pompeii architecture

• typical roman architecture

• rectangular plan with a front porch (portico), supported by six corinthian columns.

• temole made of local volcanic stone, including limestone, and its roof was covered with terracotta tiles.

temple of jupiter pompeii religious and political significance

• jupiter was the most powerful and supreme deity in the roman pantheon

• held immense religious and political importance.

• served as a place of worship and played a role in public ceremonies, sacrifices and rituals conducted to seek divine favour and protect the city.

inside the temple of jupiter in pompeii

• cult statues and sacred objects associated with the deity.

  • main cult statue represented jupiter seated on the throne, holding a thunderbolt in his hand, and wearing his customary attributes, such as a laurel wreath and cloak.

  • other religious artifacts and offerings would have also been present within the temple.

temple of jupiter in pompeii civic functions

• served as a meeting place for local magistrates and governing bodies.

• a symbol of the city’s political and religious authority

• a centre for public announcements, speeches and official gatherings.

types of sacrifices

• romans performed various types of sacrifices:

  • animal sacrifices

  • grain and food offerings

  • libations (pouring of unmixed wine or perfumed oil)

  • incense offerings

• animal sacrifices were the more elaborate form of ritual offering, involving slaughter and burning of animals such as sheep, goats, pigs and cattle.

  • really complex → reserved for special occasions.

• different gods and goddesses required different kinds of sacrifice.

  • e.g. male gods required male animals to be sacrificed while female gods required female animals.

ritual procedures

• sacrificial rituals carried out by priests or designated individuals.

• rituals followed a set procedure, which included purification, prayers and the use of religious implements (e.g. knives, altars and vessels)

• participants would gather at a sacred space

• the order of the ritual and the performance was just as important as the intention behind it.

  • if a mistake was made, the whole sacrifice would need to start from the beginning, and a second sacrifice would need to be made to atone for the mistake

culter/ensis (knife)

a sacrificial knife was used to slaughter the animal being offered. it was a curved-blade knife, often made of bronze or iron. the act of slitting the animal’s throat and spilling its blood was considered a crucial part of the sacrificial ritual.

patera

a shallow, saucer-like vessel used for holding and pouring libations. typically made of bronze or ceramic and had a handle. the patera was used to pour wine, milk, or other liquids onto the altar as an offering to the gods

secespita

a type of double-bladed axe used in certain animal sacrifices. it was used to strike a blow on the animal’s forehead before it was slaughtered. the use of the secespita was associated with particular rituals or the sacrifice of specific animals.

acerra

a small, cylindrical container used for holding incense. incense was burned as an offering to the gods during sacrifices, and the acerra served as a portable holder for the fragrant substances, such as frankinsense or myrrh.

simpulum

a ladle-like instrument with a long handle and a shallow cup. it was primarily used by the priests or officiants to pour wine or other liquids onto the sacrificial fire or the altar. the simplum had both practical and symbolic significance in the ritual.

lituus

a curved wand or staff associated with augury, the practice of interpreting signs and omens. used by the augurs, priests specialised in divination, to mark and delineate sacred spaces or to perform ceremonial gestures during the sacrificial rituals.

sacrificial tongs

tongs were used to handle burning coals or to transfer incense to the sacrificial fire or altars. they allowed the priesys or participants to manipulate the fire and control the burning of offerings.

offerings and prayers

sacrifices conveyed material and spiritual offerings to the gods. the choice of animals, the quality of the offerings and the manner of their presentation were considered significant. prayers accompanied the sacrifices, expressing the purpose of the offering and invoking the gods’ favour.

public and private sacrifices

• public sacrifices were performed on behalf of the state or community → took place at temples or other designated public spaces.

• private sacrifices were performed by individuals or families within their households or personal altars

calendar of sacrifices

festivals throughout the year were associated with specific deities and had their own rituals and customs (e.g lupercalia in feb, parilia in april and saturnalia in december)

augury and divination

the flight patterns and behaviour of birds were observed to determine gods’ acceptance or rejection of the offerings.

divination techniques, such as examining the entrails of sacrificial animals, were also employed to seek insights into the gods’ will

communal and social aspects

• provided an opportunity for social interaction, feasing, and celebration.

• sacrifices were considered acts of collective devotion and reinforced social cohesion and religious identity.

• practice of sacrifices varied over time and evolved with social and political changes.