ASU anatomy 202 exam 2

Respiratory and Lymphatic systems

what is lymph?

recovered fluid

What is clonal deletion?

the process of destroying T and B cells that react to self antigens; macrophages phagocytize them

What is the lineage of antibody and memory cell production?

b cells > plasma cells > antibodies > memory cells

What is active immunity?

producing antibodies to protect yourself

What is passive immunity?

someone gave you the antibodies, produced somewhere else

What is natural immunity?

aquired through personal exposure

What is naturally aquired immunity?

immunity aquired during fetal and breast feeding periods

What is artifically passive aquired immunity?

in addition to current exposure, they give a booster shot to increase the antibody production

What is artificially passive aquired active immunity?

only during artifical interventions (vaccines)

What are T helper cells?

necessary for clonal selection; activates T cytotoxic cells & release of antibodies

What is the IGD antigen associated with?

allergies

What is the IGM antigen associated with?

acute allergy attacks

Why is the structure of an antibody important?

Antibodies have a very small region of amino acid sequence which helps them to match the antigen (the binding site) and the variable reagion (the only part of the molecule that changes)

How many lobes are in each lung?

right-3

left-2

What is the anatomical sequence of the respiratory system?

nasal cavity > larynx > glottis (epiglottis) > trachea > R/L primary bronchi > secondary bronchi > tertiary bronchi > terminal bronchioles > respiratory bronchioles > alveoli

How many lobar bronchiole are there?

5

3 -right

2 -left

Where do most objects that are aspirated go?

right main bronchus

Where does gas exchange occur?

alveoli, at the end of each terminal bronchiole

What is the bronchus lined with inside the lung?

mucosa

What is asthma?

a smooth muscle contricted spasm; resistance to air flow

How does oxygen move within the lungs? What cells are used & for what?

oxygen moves into the alveoli via the gradient'

squamous: easy profusion

simple cubodial: secretes sirfactin & protects epithelium and reduces friction

What is the residual volume? What is its purpose?

the volume of air left in lung no matter what; the residual volume prevents the lungs to collapse during voluntary respiration

What is the percent of oxygen in the air we breathe in?

22%

What is the assumed partial pressure for the atmosphere?

760 mmHg

What is the partial pressure for oxygen?

760 x .21 = 160mmmHg

What happens with altitude with partial pressure of oxygen?

in higher elevations, the ratio of oxygen in the air is still 21%, there is just less total air. This lowers the partial pressure of oxygen

How does ventilation occur?

it is done by changing the volume and the pressure in the lungs

How does exhalation occur?

When the thorax contracts, the pressure increases (becomes greater), and air will flow out

How does inhalation occur?

When the thorax relaxes, the pressure is greater in the atmosphere, and air will flow in

What is the intrinsic relationship in the pulmonary system?

partial pressure is the fraction of oxygen multiplied by atmospheric pressure

What happens when you give someone supplemental oxygen?

supplemental oxygen increases the amount of O2 in the blood (both the hemoglobin (98% of where oxygen is in blood) and the plasma). this will keep ischemic tissues from dying

What is the relationship between pH and Co2?

Inverse relationship.

The increase of Co2 in the blood makes the blood decrease in acidity. When this happens respiration will increase to help get rid of excess Co2 in the blood to raise the pH back to a normal level.

define pathogenic

disease-causing

what is the immune system?

not an organ system but cell population that inhabits all organs and defends the body from agents of disease

what is the lymphatic system?

network of organs and vein-like vessels

what are the functions of the lymphatic system?

fluid recovery, Immunity, and lipid absorption

what is edema

fluid in tissue

what is lymphedema

fluid in tissues caused by the lymphatic system

what is elephantiasis

limb or other part of the body becomes very enlarged due to obstruction of the lymphatic vessels

what are lymphatic vessels

transport the lymph

what are lymphatic tissues

aggregations of lymphocytes in mucous membranes and various organs

how are lymphatic organs separated from surrounding organs?

separated from surrounding organs by connective tissue capsules

what is the route of lymph flow

lymphatic capillaries → collecting trunks → collecting ducts → subclavian vein

what are the 6 lymphatic trunks

jugular, subclavian, bronchomediastinal, intercostal, intestinal, and lumbar

what are the 2 collecting ducts

right lymphatic duct and thoracic duct, these both drain into the subclavian veins

what are the mechanisms of lymph flow

• flows at low pressure and speed bc no heart to pump

• valves to prevent backflow

• move by rhythmic contractions of vessels

• aides by skeletal muscle pump

• thoracic pump aids flow from abnormal to the thoracic cavity

• rapidly flowing bloodstream in subclavian veins draws lymph into it

how does exercise affect lymphatic return

increases it

diffuse lymphatic tissue

the simplest form, lymphocytes are scattered, not densely clustered, prevalent in body passages open to the exterior, MALT

what is MALT?

mucosa associated lymphatic tissue

what are lymphatic nodules (follicles)

dense masses of lymphocytes and macrophages that congregate in response to pathogens

in lymph nodes, tonsils, and appendix

what is peyer patches

dense clusters in the ileum, type of lymphatic nodules

what are primary lymphatic organs

RBM and thymus, site where T and B cells become immunocompetent

what are secondary lymphatic organs

nodes, tonsils, and spleen, immunocompetent cells populate these tissues

describe RBM

involved in hematopoiesis (blood formation), and immunity (WBCs)

describe thymus in fetus vs adult

very large in fetus bc it develops T-cells, shrinks when adult

what does the thymus do

secrete hormones that regulate T-cell development, mature T cells

compare afferent and efferent in lymph nodes and why

lots of afferent, few efferent, creates a bottleneck to slow the fluid

function of lymph nodes

• organs that filter lymph and act as a site for T and B cell activation

• 450 in adults

• reticular cells and macrophages phagocytize foreign matter

• lymphocytes respond to antigens

• common site for metastatic cancer

name the 5 tonsils and where they are

palatine - pair in oral cavity, most often infected

lingual - pair at root of tongue

pharyngeal - 1 on back wall of the nasopharynx

what is tonsillitis

inflammation of the tonsils

tonsils

help filter out germs that enter through your nose or mouth to protect the rest of your body from infection

function of spleen

blood production in fetus

blood reservoir

RBC disposal

immune reaction: filters blood and can quickly detect antigens

first line of defense

external barriers; skin and mucous membranes

second line of defense

non-specific defense; leukocytes, macrophages, antimicrobial proteins, immune surveillance, inflammation, and fever

effective against a broad range of pathogens

third line of defense

the immune system; defeats pathogen and leaves the body with a memory of it so it can defeat it faster in the future

what are your non-specific defenses

broadly effective, no prior exposure, external barriers; inflammation and fever

what are your specific defenses

results from prior exposure, protects against only a particular pathogen, immune system

what are your external barriers

skin - dry and nutrient-poor

mucous membranes - stickiness of mucus, include lysosomes

subepithelial areolar tissue - tissue gel is a viscous barrier of hyaluronic acid

what are lysosomes

enzyme that destroys bacterial cell walls

what is hyaluronidase

enzyme used by pathogens to circumvent the hyaluronic acid defense

what is lactic acid

a component of sweat, many microbes cannot survive in an acidic environment

what is keratin

toughness

define phagocyte

a cell like a WBC that engulfs and absorbs waste material, microorganisms or other foreign bodies in the bloodstream and tissues

what are neutrophils

wander in tissues and phagocytize bacteria

create a killing zone and degranulation

eosinophils

found especially in mucous membranes

phagocytize antigen-antibody complexes, allergens and inflammatory chemicals

antiparasitic effects: aggregate and release enzymes onto parasites

basophils and mast cells

aid in mobility and action of WBC;s by the release of Histamine and heparin

lymphocytes

T-cells and B-cells are apart of this

NK cells are non-specific

most abundant lymphocyte in the blood

80% T-cells, 15% B-cells, 5% NK cells

what are NK cells

natural killer cells, large lymphocytes that attack and destroy bacteria, transplanted tissue, host cells infected with viruses or have turned cancerous

monocytes

move from blood into connective tissue and transform into macrophages

macrophages

phagocytic cells, 2 types; wandering and fixed

very large, process foreign matter and display antigenic fragments to certain T cells alerting the immune system to the presence of the enemy

wandering macrophages

actively seek pathogens

fixed macrophages

only phagocytize pathogens that come to them

ex: microglia, dust cells, hepatic macrophages

what are antimicrobial proteins

inhibit microbial reproduction and provide short-term, nonspecific resistance to pathogenic bacteria and viruses; interferons and complement system

what are interferons

polypeptides secreted by cells invaded by viruses

what are interferon antiviral effects

don’t benefit the cell that secretes them

diffuse to neighboring cells and stimulate them to produce antiviral proteins

activate NK cells and macrophages to destroy infected host cells

what are interferon anticancer effects

activated NK cells can destroy cancer cells

what is the complement system

group of proteins that contribute to nonspecific and specific immunity

what are the 4 methods of pathogen destruction used by the complement system

1. inflammation

2. immune clearance

3. phagocytosis

4. cytolysis

what are the 3 routes of complement activation

classical, alternative, and lectin pathways

inflammation of complement action

mast cells and basophils secrete histamine and other inflammatory chemicals

immune clearance

principal means of clearing foreign antigens from the bloodstream

phagocytosis

neutrophils and macrophages can’t phagocytize “naked” bacteria, viruses, or other pathogens

cytolysis

bind to enemy cell and attracts more complement proteins

membrane attack complex (MAC) forms and creates a hole in target cell which ruptures it

what is immune surveillance

NK cells continually patrol the body on the lookout for pathogens and diseased host cells

1. NK cell releases perforins, which polymerase and form a hole in the enemy cell membrane

2. granzymes from NK cells enter perforin hole and degrade enemy cell enzymes

3. enemy cell dies by apoptosis

4. macrophage engulf and digests dying cell

how is a fever beneficial

promotes interferon activity, accelerating metabolic rate and tissue repair

inhibiting pathogen reproduction

over 104 it is dangerous because enzymes can stop working

what produces a fever

pyrogens

stages of fever

onset, stadium, and defervescence

Reye syndrome

serious disorder in children younger than 15 following an acute viral infection like chickenpox or the flu

swelling of brain neurons, pressure of swelling brain

can be triggered by the use of aspirin

what are the cardinal signs of inflammation

1. redness (erythema)

2. swelling (edema)

3. heat caused by hyperemia

4. pain