UNIT 4

Attribution

the process of explaining one's own behavior and the behavior of others

dispositional attribution

assuming that another's behavior is due to (internal) personality factors, not situational ones

situational attribution

attributing behavior to the environment (external factors)

attribution theory

the theory that we explain someone's behavior by crediting either the situation or the person's disposition

self-serving bias

the tendency for people to take personal credit for success but blame failure on external factors

actor-observer bias

the tendency to blame OUR actions on the situation and blame the actions of OTHERS on their personalities

fundamental attribution error

tendency to emphasize internal factors when judging others while underestimating situational factors

explanatory style

how people explain events in their and other peoples lives

optimistic explanatory style

crediting positive events to internal factors while negative events with external

pessimistic explanatory style

attriubute positive outcomes to external factors and negative outcomes to internal factors t

internal locus of control

the perception that you control your own fate

external locus of control

the perception that chance or outside forces beyond your personal control determine your fate.

mere exposure effect

the tendency for liking to increase with the frequency of exposure (Familiarity)

social comparison

evaluating one's abilities and opinions by comparing oneself with others

relative deprivation

the perception that we are worse off relative to those with whom we compare ourselves

self-fulfilling prophecy

an expectation that causes you to act in ways that make that expectation come true.

stereotype

A generalized belief about a group of people

Prejudiced Attitudes

negative attitudes towards a group or members ina group

discrimination

unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members

implicit attitude

an attitude, such as prejudice, that one is not aware of having

explicit attitudes

attitudes that we consciously endorse and can easily report

outgroup bias

tendency to focus on negative aspects of other people's groups

in-group bias

the tendency to favor one's own group

Ethnocentrism

Belief in the superiority of one's nation or ethnic group.

just-world phenomenon

the tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get

belief perseverance

tendency to stick to our initial beliefs even when evidence contradicts them

confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that confirms one's preconceptions and ignore conflicting information

cognitive dissonance

Inner tension that a consumer experiences after recognizing an inconsistency between behavior and values or opinions

social influence theory

the idea that people's behavior, attitudes, or decisions are affected by the presence or actions of others.

normative social influence

behavior that is motivated by the desire to gain social acceptance and approval

informational social influence

the influence of other people that results from taking their comments or actions as a source of information about what is correct

persuasion

the process of creating, motivating, or changing people's beliefs or actions

elaboration likelihood model

theory identifying two ways to persuade: a central route and a peripheral route

central route persuasion

attitude change path in which interested people focus on the arguments and respond with logic, evidence, and strong arguments.

peripheral route persuasion

attitude change path in which people are influenced by incidental cues, such as attractiveness, emotions, or popularity, often leading to temporary attitude change.

halo effect

a tendency to believe that people have inherently good or bad natures rather than looking at individual characteristics

foot-in-the-door technique

asking for a small commitment and, after gaining compliance, asking for a bigger commitment

door-in-the-face technique

asking for a large commitment and being refused and then asking for a smaller commitment

Conformity

Adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard.

social norms

A group's expectations regarding what is appropriate and acceptable for its members' attitudes and behaviors.

obedience

A form of compliance that occurs when people follow direct commands, usually from someone in a position of authority

Individualism

focusing on personal goals

collectivism

giving priority to the goals of one's group

Multiculturism

an acceptance of many cultures; not just one

group polarization

tendency of group members to move to an extreme position after discussing an issue as a group

group think

the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives

diffusion of responsibility

reduction in feelings of personal responsibility in the presence of others

social loafing

the tendency for people to put less effort into a simple task when working with others on that task

Deindividuation

A phenomenon that occurs when immersion in a group causes people to become less aware of their individual values

social facilitation

stronger responses on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others

social trap

individuals or groups pursue short-term personal gains, which ultimately leads to long-term negative consequences instead of benefiting them

superordinate goals

a shared goal of a grouo is more important than individual or other goals

Pro social behavior

positive, constructive, helpful behavior.

altruism

selfless acts for the wellbeing of others without expecting any personal gain

social-responsibility norm

an expectation that people will help those needing their help

Social Reciprocity Norm

The belief that if someone does something for you then you should do something for them

false consensus

a belief that others share the same opinion about something, when actually most don't

social exchange theory

the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs

bystander effect

the finding that a person is less likely to provide help when there are other bystanders

personality

an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting

psychodynamic theory

Freudian theory that unconscious forces determine behavior

ego (frued)

s the part of your mind that helps you make decisions based on reality. It tries to balance your desires (id) with your moral values (superego), making choices that are practical and socially acceptable.

super ego (freud)

the part of your mind that acts as your moral compass. It represents your values, ethics, and societal rules, guiding you to do what is right and avoiding actions that are wrong or immoral.

Id (freud)

part of your mind that is driven by basic instincts and desires, seeking immediate pleasure and avoiding pain. It operates on the "pleasure principle" and doesn't consider the consequences of actions.

Defence mechanisms

in psychoanalytic theory, the ego's protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality

Denial

refusing to believe or even perceive painful realities

Displacement

redirecting reactions and emotional responses to another situation

projection

projecting thoughts and feelings to someone else

rationalizing

justifying uncomfortable thoughts or behaviors to make it seem acceptable

reaction formation

acting in opposite way o feelings

Regression

reverting back to behaviors of an earlier development stage

Sublimation

taking unacceptable i pulses and channeling them into socially acceptable actions

Repression

pushing distressing memories or thoughts out of their conscious awareness

Humanistic Perspective

believes that a persons personality grows and is influenced by their needs and enviornment

positive regard

warmth, affection, love, and respect that come from others

self-actualization

the process by which people achieve their full potential

unconscious mind

Freud's term for the part of our mind that we cannot become aware of

conscious mind

level of the mind that is aware of immediate surroundings and perceptions

pre conscious

contains material just beneath the surface of awareness that can easily be retrieved

social cognitive theory

The view of psychologists who emphasize behavior, environment, and cognition as the key factors in development.

reciprocal determinism

a person's personality is shaped by interactions between personal factors, behavior and their environment.

self-concept

all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?"

self-efficacy

a person's belief in his or her ability to succeed at the task at hand

self-esteem

one's feelings of high or low self-worth

Big Five Theory of Personality

OCEAN

Openness

Conscientiousness

Extraversion

Agreeableness

Neuroticism

oppenness

to experiences is related to one's creativity, curiosity, and willingness to try new things

Conscientiousness

how dependable, responsible, achievement-oriented, and persistent one is

Extraversion

A personality dimension describing someone who is sociable, enthusiastic, and assertive

Agreeableness

how trusting, good-natured, cooperative, and altruistic one is

Neuroticism (emotional stability)

refers to degree of emotional stability, impulse control, and anxiety in stressful situations

personal inventories

self-report questionnaires that assess personal traits

factor analysis

correlations among many variables are analyzed to identify closely related clusters of variables

instinct theory

belief that behavior is motivated by INSTINCTS, that are biologically hardwired causing certain responses

primary needs/drives

biological necessities like hunger and thirst

secondary needs/drives

psychological desires (approval/love/belonging)