U.S. Congress, Presidency, and Federal Budget: Key Concepts and Processes

Bicameral Legislature

Two-house Congress made up of the House of Representatives and the Senate; designed to balance state representation.

Constituents

The people a representative serves; voters in a district or state.

Enumerated Powers

Powers directly listed in the Constitution (Art. I, Sec. 8) like taxing, declaring war, and regulating commerce.

Implied Powers

Powers not listed but derived from the Necessary and Proper Clause; ex: National Bank (McCulloch v. Maryland).

Necessary and Proper Clause

Constitutional clause giving Congress flexibility to make laws needed to carry out its enumerated powers.

House of Representatives

435 members, 2-year terms, represents districts, stricter debate rules, Speaker of the House leads.

Senate

100 members, 6-year terms, represents entire states, open debate, allows filibuster, Majority Leader leads.

Coalition

A group of lawmakers who unite around common goals or interests.

Caucus

A meeting or group of party members in Congress to set agendas or select leaders.

Bipartisan

Cooperation between members of both political parties.

Constituency

The body of voters who elect a representative or senator.

Office of Management and Budget (OMB)

Assists the president in creating the federal budget proposal.

Congressional Budget Office (CBO)

Nonpartisan agency that analyzes and reviews the president's budget for Congress.

Fiscal Year

The government's accounting period from October 1 to September 30.

Mandatory Spending

Required by law; ex: Social Security, Medicare, Medicaid.

Discretionary Spending

Spending debated and approved by Congress each year; ex: defense, education.

Servicing the Debt

Paying interest on money the government has borrowed.

Pork-Barrel Spending

Funding local projects to benefit a representative's district for political gain.

Earmarks

Funding set aside for a specific project or company.

Grant-in-Aid

Federal funds given to states for specific programs (ties to federalism).

HABBAL

Acronym for 'How A Bill Becomes A Law.'

Introduction (Step 1)

A member of Congress introduces a bill; it's referred to a committee and possibly a subcommittee.

Committee Action (Step 2)

Bill is studied, debated, amended ('mark-up'), or may die in committee (most bills do).

Rules Committee (House only)

Sets the rules for debate: open rule allows amendments, closed rule restricts them.

Floor Debate (Step 3)

Members debate and vote; in the Senate, a filibuster can delay action unless 60 votes for cloture end debate.

Conference Committee (Step 4)

Resolves differences between House and Senate versions of a bill; creates a compromise version.

Final Approval (Step 5)

Both chambers vote on the final bill version.

Presidential Action (Step 6)

President can sign the bill into law, veto it, or take no action.

Veto Override

Congress can override a presidential veto with a two-thirds vote in both houses.

Pocket Veto

President takes no action while Congress is adjourned, and the bill dies.

Simple Resolution

Passed by one chamber; does not have the force of law.

Concurrent Resolution

Passed by both houses; affects internal rules but not law.

Joint Resolution

Passed by both houses and signed by the president; has the force of law; can propose constitutional amendments (not signed by president).

Partisanship

Strong loyalty to a political party, sometimes over national interest.

Ideology

A system of beliefs about government, economics, and society (conservative, liberal, libertarian).

Divided Government

When the presidency and one or both chambers of Congress are controlled by different parties.

Gridlock

Political stalemate that prevents laws or budgets from being passed.

Polarization

Growing ideological distance between political parties leading to fewer compromises.

Delegate Model

Representatives vote according to their constituents' wishes.

Trustee Model

Representatives vote using their own judgment and expertise.

Politico Model

Representatives act as delegates or trustees depending on the situation.

Reapportionment

Redistribution of House seats among states after each census.

Redistricting

Redrawing of district boundaries within a state after the census.

Gerrymandering

Manipulating district lines to favor one political party or group.

Baker v. Carr (1962)

Established 'one person, one vote' and made redistricting reviewable by courts.

Shaw v. Reno (1993)

Declared racial gerrymandering unconstitutional under the 14th Amendment.

Formal Powers

Powers listed in Article II: execute laws, command the military, grant pardons, make treaties, appoint officials, veto bills.

Informal Powers

Powers not listed but used in practice: bargaining, persuasion, executive orders, executive agreements, bully pulpit.

Bully Pulpit

President's use of media or public speeches to influence public opinion and pressure Congress.

Executive Order

Directive issued by the president with the force of law without Congress's approval.

Executive Agreement

Agreement with a foreign leader that doesn't need Senate ratification.

Signing Statement

President's written interpretation of a law when signing it, possibly indicating how they'll enforce it.

Executive Privilege

President's right to keep some communications private; limited by U.S. v. Nixon.

Advice and Consent

Senate's power to confirm or reject presidential appointments and treaties.

White House Staff

President's closest advisers; not confirmed by the Senate (includes Chief of Staff, Press Secretary, Counsel).

Chief of Staff

Manages access to the president and coordinates administration operations.

Judicial Appointment

Presidential power to nominate federal judges; Senate confirms.

Presidential Legacy

Long-term impact through lifetime judicial appointments.

Unified Government

One party controls both Congress and the presidency; easier policy passage.

Expansion of Presidential Power

Growth of executive authority due to media, crisis response, and technology.

Crisis Leadership

Presidents often gain power during wars, disasters, and emergencies.

Spin

Presenting information in a way that favors the president's position.

Trial Balloon

Leaking an idea to gauge public or political reaction before taking action.

Leak

Releasing confidential information to the media intentionally or accidentally.

Fireside Chats

FDR's radio addresses to comfort and inform the public during the Great Depression.

State of the Union Address

Annual presidential message to Congress required by the Constitution; outlines priorities.