Ancient Egypt

Akh

A transformed spirit of the deceased in ancient Egyptian belief, representing a state of existence after death. Who: Ancient Egyptians; What: Transformed spirit; When: After death; Where: In the afterlife; Why important: Represents the continuation of life after death and the individual's journey in the afterlife.

Ammit

A demon in Egyptian mythology with the head of a crocodile, body of a lion, and hindquarters of a hippo, who devoured the hearts of the unworthy. Who: Ancient Egyptian mythology; What: A demon; When: In the context of the afterlife judgment; Where: Hall of Judgment; Why important: Represents the consequences of one's moral actions in life.

Absolute Dating

A dating method used by archaeologists and Egyptologists that provides a specific chronological age. Who: Archaeologists and Egyptologists; What: Dating method; When: Used in excavations; Where: In archaeological sites; Why important: Provides precise historical timelines for ancient Egyptian artifacts.

Amun

Egyptian god of the air and fertility, who later became the supreme deity of Thebes. Who: Ancient Egyptians; What: A major god; When: Throughout ancient Egyptian history; Where: Thebes; Why important: Symbolized the interplay between air, fertility, and kingship, central to Egyptian religion.

Axial Design (Architecture)

A design principle in which temples and tombs are laid out along a straight axis. Who: Ancient Egyptian architects; What: Architectural design principle; When: During the construction of temples and tombs; Where: Ancient Egypt; Why important: Emphasizes order, symmetry, and religious significance in construction.

Aegyptiaca

A historical account of Egyptian kings compiled by the Hellenistic historian Manetho. Who: Manetho; What: Historical account; When: Hellenistic period; Where: Ancient Egypt; Why important: Provides a timeline and genealogical record of Egyptian rulers.

Abydos

A sacred city in ancient Egypt associated with Osiris, known as a burial site for early pharaohs. Who: Ancient Egyptians; What: Sacred city; When: Predynastic to late periods; Where: Upper Egypt; Why important: Major religious site for worship and burial of pharaohs.

Ba

A spiritual entity in Egyptian belief, often depicted as a bird with a human head. Who: Ancient Egyptians; What: Spiritual component; When: During a person's life and after death; Where: In the afterlife; Why important: Represents the individual's personality and essence, critical to the concept of the afterlife.

Beautiful Feast of the Valley

A festival in ancient Egypt honoring the dead, celebrated in Thebes. Who: Ancient Egyptians; What: Religious festival; When: Annually; Where: Thebes; Why important: Reinforces the connection between the living and the deceased through rituals honoring ancestors.

Bes

A dwarf god in Egyptian mythology, the protector of households, childbirth, and music. Who: Ancient Egyptians; What: A protective deity; When: Throughout ancient Egyptian history; Where: In households; Why important: Symbolizes protection and good fortune for families, especially mothers and children.

Blue Crown

A war crown worn by Egyptian pharaohs, known as the khepresh. Who: Pharaohs of Egypt; What: Headpiece; When: During warfare; Where: Ancient Egyptian battles; Why important: Symbolizes the power and authority of the pharaoh in military contexts.

Book of the Dead

A collection of spells used to guide the deceased in the afterlife. Who: Ancient Egyptians; What: Funerary text; When: From the New Kingdom onwards; Where: Burials; Why important: Provides essential knowledge for navigating the afterlife and achieving immortality.

9 Bows

A term representing Egypt’s traditional enemies. Who: Ancient Egyptians; What: Symbolic term; When: Throughout history; Where: Egypt; Why important: Represents threats to Egypt, often depicted in artistic and political contexts.

Canon of Proportions

A grid system used by Egyptian artists to maintain consistent human proportions in art. Who: Ancient Egyptian artists; What: Artistic tool; When: From the Early Dynastic period; Where: In Egyptian art; Why important: Ensures portrayals of humans are standardized, reflecting order and harmony.

Canopic Jar

Containers used in mummification rituals to hold the organs of the deceased. Who: Ancient Egyptians; What: Storage vessels; When: During mummification; Where: Burials; Why important: Essential for preserving the body for the afterlife.

Cartouche

An oval shape enclosing a king’s name in hieroglyphs, signifying royal status. Who: Ancient Egyptian rulers; What: Hieroglyphic symbol; When: Throughout pharaonic history; Where: In tombs and temples; Why important: Represents the divine nature of kingship and protection.

Champollion

The French linguist who deciphered Egyptian hieroglyphs using the Rosetta Stone. Who: Jean-François Champollion; What: Linguist and Egyptologist; When: 1822; Where: France; Why important: Enabled the understanding of ancient Egyptian texts and culture.

Chaos/Isfet

A concept in Egyptian mythology symbolizing disorder and the opposite of Ma’at. Who: Ancient Egyptians; What: Mythological concept; When: Throughout history; Where: In their belief system; Why important: Represents the struggle against chaos and the importance of order in life.

Circumpolar Stars

Stars that never set, associated with the afterlife in ancient Egyptian belief. Who: Ancient Egyptians; What: Astronomical phenomena; When: Used throughout history; Where: Egyptian sky; Why important: Symbolizes immortality and the eternal cycle of life and death.

Coffin Texts

Funerary spells inscribed on coffins during the Middle Kingdom. Who: Ancient Egyptians; What: Inscribed texts; When: Middle Kingdom; Where: In coffins; Why important: Guide the deceased in the afterlife, reflecting beliefs about resurrection.

Composite Art

A style in Egyptian art where figures are shown in mixed perspectives. Who: Ancient Egyptian artists; What: Artistic style; When: Throughout ancient history; Where: Egyptian art; Why important: Enhances the visual storytelling of religious and cultural narratives.

Conceptual Art

Art that depicts objects based on their ideal form rather than their appearance in reality. Who: Ancient Egyptian artists; What: Artistic approach; When: Throughout ancient history; Where: In ancient art; Why important: Reflects Egyptian philosophical ideas regarding the nature of reality.

Coptic

The final stage of the Egyptian language, written in Greek letters with Demotic signs. Who: Egyptian scribes; What: Language; When: From the 3rd century AD onwards; Where: Egypt; Why important: Represents the last form of ancient Egyptian culture and language.

Creation

Myths explaining the origins of the universe in ancient Egyptian belief. Who: Ancient Egyptians; What: Origin myths; When: Throughout history; Where: Ancient mythology; Why important: Provides insights into how the Egyptians understood their world and existence.

Demotic

A later script derived from hieratic, used for everyday writing in ancient Egypt. Who: Ancient Egyptians; What: Writing system; When: From the 7th century BC onwards; Where: Egypt; Why important: Facilitates communication and documentation of daily life.

Description de L’Égypte

A massive collection of illustrations and writings about Egypt created by scholars from Napoleon's expedition. Who: French scholars; What: Historical and illustrative work; When: Early 19th century; Where: Egypt; Why important: Provides extensive knowledge about ancient Egyptian culture and practices.

Determinative

A hieroglyphic symbol that clarifies a word’s meaning but is not pronounced. Who: Ancient Egyptians; What: Writing feature; When: In hieroglyphic writing; Where: Inscription context; Why important: Adds clarity and precision to the written language.

Djed Pillar

A symbol of stability and endurance associated with Osiris. Who: Ancient Egyptians; What: Symbol; When: Throughout ancient history; Where: In temples and tombs; Why important: Represents the concept of eternal life and support in the afterlife.

Djet/Neheh

Concepts of eternal time (Djet) and cyclical time (Neheh) in Egyptian belief. Who: Ancient Egyptians; What: Time concepts; When: Throughout history; Where: Egyptian theology; Why important: Reflects Egyptians' understanding of time and existence.

Double Crown

A combination of the White Crown and Red Crown, symbolizing the unification of Egypt. Who: Pharaohs; What: Royal headgear; When: Throughout dynastic history; Where: Ancient Egypt; Why important: Represents the political unity of Upper and Lower Egypt.

Dualism

The belief in opposing but complementary forces in Egyptian religious thought. Who: Ancient Egyptians; What: Philosophical concept; When: Present throughout religion and philosophy; Where: In Egyptian culture; Why important: Reflects a balanced worldview and the interaction between forces.

Duat

The realm of the dead in ancient Egyptian belief, ruled by Osiris. Who: Ancient Egyptians; What: Afterlife realm; When: Beliefs spanning centuries; Where: In the mythology; Why important: Central to understanding Egyptian views on life after death.

Ennead

A group of nine major gods in Heliopolis, including Atum and Osiris. Who: Ancient Egyptians; What: Pantheon; When: Throughout religious history; Where: Heliopolis; Why important: Central to Egyptian mythology and religious practices.

False Door

A carved stone or painted door in tombs that symbolizes passage to the afterlife. Who: Ancient Egyptians; What: Tomb architectural feature; When: Used in burial contexts; Where: In tombs; Why important: Represents the gateway for the deceased to access the afterlife.

Fields of Iaru

The Egyptian paradise where the deceased could live eternally. Who: Ancient Egyptians; What: Afterlife concept; When: Throughout ancient belief; Where: In the afterlife; Why important: Represents the ultimate reward for virtuous living.

Four Sons of Horus

Deities associated with the protection of the deceased’s organs: Imsety, Hapy, Duamutef, and Qebehsenuef. Who: Ancient Egyptians; What: Protective deities; When: From the mummification practices; Where: In burials; Why important: Essential for safeguarding vital organs for the afterlife.

French Expedition

A military and scientific expedition led by Napoleon Bonaparte to Egypt. Who: Napoleon Bonaparte and French scholars; What: Expedition; When: 1798-1801; Where: Egypt; Why important: Resulted in significant discoveries, including the Rosetta Stone.

Frontality (in art)

A stylistic convention where figures are depicted with forward-facing torsos and profile heads. Who: Ancient Egyptian artists; What: Artistic convention; When: Across different periods; Where: In Egyptian art; Why important: Emphasizes formality and symmetry in representations.

Geb

Egyptian god of the earth, associated with fertility. Who: Ancient Egyptians; What: Earth deity; When: Throughout history; Where: In Egyptian religion; Why important: Represents the earth’s fertility and was significant in creation myths.

Ground Line

A horizontal line that figures stand on in Egyptian artwork. Who: Ancient Egyptian artists; What: Artistic element; When: Used throughout ancient history; Where: In art; Why important: Provides stability and context to figures within the artwork.

Hapi

Egyptian god of the Nile, associated with annual flooding. Who: Ancient Egyptians; What: Nile god; When: During the annual flooding season; Where: Egypt; Why important: Represents fertility, agricultural prosperity, and the cycle of life.

Hall of Judgment

A place where souls were judged in the afterlife, described in the Book of the Dead. Who: Ancient Egyptians; What: Afterlife location; When: Throughout Egyptian beliefs; Where: In the mythology; Why important: Central to the concept of morality and the afterlife consequences.

Heart Scarab

A protective amulet placed on the chest of mummies to ensure the heart would not betray the deceased during judgment. Who: Ancient Egyptians; What: Amulet; When: Used in burials; Where: In mummification; Why important: Symbolizes protection and the importance of the heart in the afterlife judgment.

Heb-Sed (Sed) Jubilee

A festival celebrating a king’s continued rule after 30 years. Who: Ancient Egyptian kings; What: Jubilee celebration; When: Every 30 years; Where: Throughout Egypt; Why important: Reinforces kingship and establishes the ruler’s divine right to govern.

Heliacal Rising of Sothis

The first visible appearance of the star Sothis, marking the new year. Who: Ancient Egyptians; What: Astronomical event; When: Annually; Where: In the sky as viewed from Egypt; Why important: Marks the start of the Nile's flooding season, critical for agriculture.

Heliopolitan Cosmogony

A creation myth centered on Atum, one of the main Egyptian creation stories. Who: Ancient Egyptians; What: Creation myth; When: Throughout ancient history; Where: Heliopolis; Why important: Explains the origins of gods and the universe.

Hermopolitan Cosmogony

A creation myth based on the Ogdoad, emphasizing chaos and balance. Who: Ancient Egyptians; What: Creation myth; When: During various periods; Where: Hermopolis; Why important: Represents the complexity of creation and existence.

Hieratic

A cursive script derived from hieroglyphs used for daily writing. Who: Ancient Egyptians; What: Writing system; When: From around 3000 BC; Where: In everyday life; Why important: Facilitates daily communication and record-keeping.

Hieroglyphics

A pictorial script used for religious and official inscriptions in ancient Egypt. Who: Ancient Egyptians; What: Writing system; When: From ancient times; Where: Used in temples and monuments; Why important: Represents the religious and historical narratives of ancient Egypt.

Horus

The sky god and protector of the pharaoh, depicted as a falcon-headed deity. Who: Ancient Egyptians; What: Major deity; When: Throughout ancient history; Where: In temples and texts; Why important: Symbolizes kingship and divine protection.

Horus Name

One of the official royal names associated with the god Horus. Who: Pharaohs; What: Royal title; When: During a pharaoh's reign; Where: In royal inscriptions; Why important: Represents the pharaoh's divine right to rule.

Ideogram

A hieroglyph that represents a whole word or concept. Who: Ancient Egyptians; What: Writing symbol; When: Throughout the use of hieroglyphics; Where: In inscriptions; Why important: Essential for conveying meaning without phonetic sounds.

Isis

Goddess of magic, motherhood, and protection, central to myths of Osiris and Horus. Who: Ancient Egyptians; What: Major goddess; When: Throughout ancient history; Where: In temples and various texts; Why important: Represents the ideals of motherhood and protection.

Ka

The life force or soul of an individual in ancient Egyptian belief. Who: Ancient Egyptians; What: Spiritual concept; When: Beliefs spanning centuries; Where: Inafterlife theology; Why important: Central to the understanding of the human spirit and afterlife.

Ka Priest

A priest responsible for maintaining a deceased person’s offerings. Who: Ancient Egyptian priests; What: Religious role; When: Throughout ancient Egyptian practice; Where: Tombs; Why important: Ensures the deceased receives offerings for sustenance in the afterlife.

Ka Statue

A statue that housed the ka spirit of the deceased. Who: Ancient Egyptians; What: Funerary object; When: Used in burial practices; Where: In tombs; Why important: Provides a physical home for the ka, supporting the deceased's afterlife.

Kemet/Deshret

Terms referring to the fertile land (Kemet) and desert (Deshret) in ancient Egypt. Who: Ancient Egyptians; What: Geographic terminology; When: Historically significant; Where: In Egypt; Why important: Highlights the contrast between life-giving and desolate areas crucial for survival.

Khnum

A creator god who shaped humans from clay, depicted with a ram’s head. Who: Ancient Egyptians; What: Creator deity; When: Throughout ancient history; Where: In religious texts; Why important: Represents the essence of creation and fertility.

Kingship

The divine rule of Egypt’s pharaohs, central to Egyptian political life. Who: Pharaohs; What: Political and religious system; When: Throughout ancient history; Where: In Egypt; Why important: Foundation of social order and governance.

Ma’at

The concept of truth, balance, and order, crucial for maintaining cosmic stability. Who: Ancient Egyptians; What: Philosophical concept; When: Central to religion across eras; Where: In belief systems; Why important: Guides moral and ethical conduct in society.

Manetho

An Egyptian priest and historian who compiled a history of Egypt in Greek. Who: Manetho; What: Historian; When: Ptolemaic period; Where: Egypt; Why important: Provided a framework for understanding Egyptian chronology and rulers.

Mariette

Auguste Mariette, a French Egyptologist who discovered the Serapeum of Saqqara. Who: Auguste Mariette; What: Egyptologist; When: 19th century; Where: Saqqara; Why important: Made significant contributions to Egyptology and the study of ancient religions.

Memphite Cosmogony

A creation myth emphasizing Ptah as the creator god. Who: Ancient Egyptians; What: Creation myth; When: Throughout history; Where: Memphis; Why important: Highlights the significance of crafts and artistic creation in their beliefs.

Middle Egyptian

A phase of the Egyptian language, considered the classical stage. Who: Ancient Egyptians; What: Linguistic phase; When: Approximately 2000-1350 BC; Where: Ancient Egypt; Why important: Used in literature and inscriptions, forming a significant part of Egypt's cultural heritage.

Mortuary Cult

Rituals performed to sustain the spirits of the dead. Who: Ancient Egyptians; What: Religious practice; When: Throughout history; Where: In tombs; Why important: Essential for the deceased’s afterlife and remembrance.

Mortuary Estate

Land and resources dedicated to maintaining a tomb and its rituals. Who: Ancient Egyptians; What: Physical estate; When: Used in burial contexts; Where: In ancient Egypt; Why important: Ensures continued offerings and care for the deceased.

Mortuary Temple

A temple dedicated to a deceased king’s cult. Who: Ancient Egyptians; What: Religious structure; When: Built after a king’s reign; Where: Near tombs; Why important: Focus of rituals honoring the deceased pharaoh.

Mummification

The process of preserving a body for the afterlife. Who: Ancient Egyptians; What: Preservation ritual; When: Before burial; Where: In tombs; Why important: Essential for preparing the deceased for eternal life.

Napoleon Bonaparte

French military leader who led the expedition that discovered the Rosetta Stone. Who: Napoleon Bonaparte; What: Military leader; When: 1798; Where: Egypt; Why important: His expedition sparked interest in Egyptology and the study of hieroglyphs.

Natron

A naturally occurring salt used in mummification. Who: Ancient Egyptians; What: Preservative substance; When: Used in mummification rituals; Where: In tombs; Why important: Key for preventing decay and ensuring the body’s preservation.

Negative Confession

A declaration of innocence made by the deceased before judgment. Who: Ancient Egyptians; What: Ritual declaration; When: In the afterlife; Where: In the Hall of Judgment; Why important: Important for determining the fate of the deceased.

Nemes Headdress

A striped cloth headdress symbolizing kingship. Who: Pharaohs; What: Ceremonial headgear; When: Worn during reign; Where: In royal contexts; Why important: Represents the divine status and authority of the pharaoh.

Nephthys

Goddess of mourning and protection, sister of Isis and Osiris. Who: Ancient Egyptians; What: Deity; When: Understood throughout history; Where: In religious contexts; Why important: Represents the themes of protection and mourning in mythology.

Nesu-bit Name

Royal title meaning 'King of Upper and Lower Egypt.' Who: Pharaohs; What: Royal title; When: Throughout ancient Egyptian rule; Where: In hieroglyphs and inscriptions; Why important: Essential for identification of the pharaoh’s authority.

Nome/Nomarch

Administrative divisions governed by officials in ancient Egypt. Who: Ancient Egyptians; What: Political structure; When: Throughout history; Where: Egypt; Why important: Essential for governance and local administration.

Nu/Nun

Primordial deity representing chaotic waters before creation. Who: Ancient Egyptians; What: Primordial god; When: In creation myths; Where: In religious texts; Why important: Signifies the chaos that existed before order was established.

Nut

Sky goddess and mother of Osiris, Isis, Seth, and Nephthys. Who: Ancient Egyptians; What: Major goddess; When: Ancient civilization; Where: In mythology; Why important: Symbolizes the sky and maternal aspects of creation.

Obelisk

A tall, four-sided stone pillar symbolizing the sun god Re. Who: Ancient Egyptians; What: Monument; When: Throughout various periods; Where: In temples and sacred sites; Why important: Represents connection to the divine and solar worship.

Offering Formula/Prayer

A written invocation to ensure offerings for the dead. Who: Ancient Egyptians; What: Religious text; When: Employed in burials; Where: In tombs; Why important: Ensures the deceased receives necessary offerings in the afterlife.

Opening of Mouth Ritual

A ceremony to restore the senses of the dead. Who: Ancient Egyptians; What: Ritual; When: During mummification; Where: In tombs; Why important: Essential for enabling the deceased to interact with the afterlife.

Ogdoad

A group of eight primordial deities representing chaos. Who: Ancient Egyptians; What: Mythological group; When: In creation myths; Where: Ancient Egyptian religion; Why important: Highlights the complexity of creation and divine intervention.

Opet Festival

A religious festival honoring the god Amun. Who: Ancient Egyptians; What: Festival; When: Annually; Where: Thebes; Why important: Reinforces community and religious devotion towards Amun.

Osiris

Egyptian god of the afterlife associated with resurrection and judgment. Who: Ancient Egyptians; What: Major god; When: Across all periods; Where: In religion and mythology; Why important: Central figure for the concept of afterlife and rebirth.

Palermo Stone

A fragment of a royal annal recording early kings of Egypt. Who: Ancient Egyptians; What: Historical artifact; When: Early Dynastic period; Where: Egypt; Why important: Valuable source for understanding early Egyptian kingship.

Perceptual Art

Art representing how something appears in reality, less common than conceptual art. Who: Ancient Egyptian artists; What: Artistic style; When: Throughout various periods; Where: In Egyptian artwork; Why important: Reflects various approaches to representing reality in art.

W.M.F. Petrie

Pioneer of systematic excavation in Egypt. Who: W.M.F. Petrie; What: Egyptologist; When: 19th century; Where: Egypt; Why important: Established methodologies that shaped modern archaeology.

Pharaoh

The ruler of Egypt, considered divine and central to society. Who: Ancient Egyptians; What: Monarch; When: Throughout history; Where: In ancient Egypt; Why important: Central figure in government, religion, and society.

Pylon

Monumental gateways to temples in ancient Egypt. Who: Ancient Egyptians; What: Architectural features; When: Throughout temple construction; Where: In temples; Why important: Symbolize the entrance to the divine.

Ptah

Egyptian creator god and patron of craftsmen. Who: Ancient Egyptians; What: Creator deity; When: Throughout history; Where: In religion; Why important: Represents craftsmanship and artistic innovation.

Pyramid Texts

Oldest religious texts inscribed in the pyramids. Who: Ancient Egyptians; What: Religious inscriptions; When: From the Old Kingdom; Where: In pyramids; Why important: Fundamental for understanding ancient beliefs about the afterlife.

Re/Ra

The chief deity of the Egyptian pantheon, symbolizing the sun. Who: Ancient Egyptians; What: Major god; When: Throughout ancient history; Where: In temples; Why important: Central to Egyptian religion and symbolism of life and death.

Reisner

George Reisner, American Egyptologist who made significant discoveries. Who: George Reisner; What: Egyptologist; When: 20th century; Where: Egypt; Why important: Contributed extensively to the understanding of Egyptian archaeology.

Relative Dating

A method of dating based on artifact comparison. Who: Archaeologists; What: Dating technique; When: Used in various excavations; Where: Throughout archaeological sites; Why important: Helps establish chronological frameworks.

Ren/Name

A person’s name in Egyptian belief, considered part of their soul. Who: Ancient Egyptians; What: Spiritual concept; When: Throughout ancient history; Where: In burial practices; Why important: Signifies identity and continuity in the afterlife.

Ritual/Myth

Religious practices connected to mythology. Who: Ancient Egyptians; What: Religious acts; When: Throughout history; Where: In temples and domestic settings; Why important: Integral to religious observance and cultural identity.

Rosetta Stone

A trilingual inscription that helped decipher hieroglyphs. Who: Ancient Egyptians and scholars; What: Inscription; When: 196 BC; Where: Found in Egypt; Why important: Key to understanding hieroglyphic writing and ancient Egyptian culture.

Sema Tawy

A symbol of the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt. Who: Ancient Egyptians; What: Hieroglyphic symbol; When: Throughout dynastic periods; Where: In royal iconography; Why important: Represents the political unity of Egypt.

Serekh

A rectangular frame enclosing a pharaoh’s Horus name. Who: Ancient Egyptians; What: Symbolic frame; When: Throughout ancient history; Where: In royal iconography; Why important: Indicates the divine association of the pharaoh.

Seth

God of chaos in Egyptian mythology. Who: Ancient Egyptians; What: Major god; When: Throughout mythology; Where: In texts and rituals; Why important: Symbolizes chaos and opposition to order.

Shabako Stone

A stone containing the Memphite Theology, commissioned by Pharaoh Shabako. Who: Pharaoh Shabako; What: Stone inscription; When: 25th Dynasty; Where: Egypt; Why important: Provides insights into ancient Egyptian religious beliefs.