ap gov midterm

natural rights

the belief in which individuals hold inherent rights bestowed to them by power/nature beyond the government

social contract

an “agreement” in which the people give up some of their liberties in exchange for protections and interests protected for by the government

popular sovereignty

the belief that the people hold ultimate power/reign over the government

limited government

restricting the powers and authority of government, ensuring that it cannot infringe upon individual rights and freedoms

republicanism

a form of government in which the power is held by the people, either directly or through elected representatives

federalism

system of government in which power is divided between a central authority and constituent political units, such as states or provinces.

dual federalism

form of national governance encompassing a lesser (e.g., state) government along with a higher (e.g., federal) government, each working within their own jurisdiction and some semblance of autonomy

fiscal federalism

concept of federalism where funding is appropriated by the federal government to the states with specific conditions attached

checks and balances

political processes in which branches of a government is responsible for checking and balancing the power of the other branches to avoid the rise of tyranny

separation of powers

the powers of government are divided among the legislative, executive, and judicial branches, preventing any one branch from becoming too dominant

enumerated powers

duties and powers given to the government as explicitly listed in the constitution

implied powers

duties and powers not explicitly stated in the Constitution but are inferred from its language, allowing the federal government to carry out its enumerated powers effectively

reserved powers

powers that are not specifically granted to the federal government by the Constitution, nor prohibited to the states, thus allowing them to be exercised by state governments (rooted in 10th amendment - any powers not delegated to the federal government are reserved for the states or the people)

formal powers

Powers expressly granted to the president under Article II of the Constitution. Examples include making treaties, commanding the military, appointing Supreme Court justices, and vetoing legislation. informal powers

executive orders

official directives issued by the president to manage the operations of the federal government (allows for implementation of policies without congressional approval)

judicial review

power of courts to examine and invalidate actions of the legislative and executive branches if those actions are found to be unconstitutional

precedent

a legal principle or rule established in a previous court case that is binding or persuasive in future cases with similar circumstances

judicial restraint

legal philosophy that encourages judges to limit the exercise of their own power and to uphold laws and precedents established by the legislative and executive branches

judicial activism

practice where judges take an active role in interpreting the law and making decisions that can create new legal precedents or change existing ones. This approach often leads to rulings that address social issues and promote justice, sometimes even stepping beyond traditional legal boundaries

discretionary power

the authority granted to public officials and agencies to make decisions based on their own judgment within the framework of established laws and regulations

bureaucracy

complex system of administration that manages and organizes government functions, typically characterized by a hierarchical structure and a set of formal rules and procedures

interest groups

organized collections of individuals or organizations that seek to influence public policy and decision-making to achieve specific goals

issue networks

web of relationships among various stakeholders, including government officials, interest groups, and other entities that come together around a specific policy issue

iron triangles

the stable, mutually beneficial relationships among three entities: government agencies, congressional committees or subcommittees, and interest groups.

political socialization

the process by which an individual’s political views and values are influenced by their environment (family, school, peers, community)

liberal

supports a strong role for government in addressing social issues like poverty, education, and healthcare, often advocating for programs that assist marginalized groups

conservative

emphasizes tradition, limited government, individual liberties, and free-market principles; tends to favor lower taxes and less government regulation in economic affairs to promote individual entrepreneurship

libertarian

emphasizes individual liberty, minimal government intervention, and free markets. It advocates for personal autonomy, where individuals have the right to make choices about their lives without excessive government control

monetary policy

actions taken by the federal reserve to influence interest rates

fiscal policy

actions taken by congress and the president to influence the economy (keynesian/supply-side methods)

polling methodology

• opinion polls - measure general public opinion on key contemporary issues

• benchmark polls - measure baseline views of a certain candidate

• tracking polls - follows how views of a candidate shift over a campaign period

• exit polls - data on why voters chose a particular candidate/policy

generational effects

the experiences shared by a common generation that influencing their political values and opinions (e.g., great depression, WWII)

life-cycle effects

the shifting of political stances across an individual’s lifetime

15th amendment

prohibits the federal government and each state from denying or abridging a citizen's right to vote "on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude (granted vote for african american men)

19th amendment

women’s suffrage

agenda-setting

• the process by which media and political actors influence the importance placed on issues in the public agenda

• (news, social media/communication tech/interest groups/etc)

The Declaration of Independence

• Thomas Jefferson

• Natural rights: "Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness."

• Government derives its power from the consent of the governed (popular sovereignty)

• Right to alter or abolish oppressive governments (social contract)

• Lists grievances against King George III (e.g., taxation without representation, lack of judicial independence).

• Justifies separation from Britain based on Enlightenment principles of self-government and natural rights.

The Articles of Confederation

• John Dickinson

• Established a weak central government with limited powers.

• No executive branch or national judiciary.

• Congress could not levy taxes or regulate commerce.

• Required unanimous consent for amendments.

• Designed to protect state sovereignty and prevent tyranny.

• Created significant challenges: inability to address economic instability (e.g., Shays' Rebellion), lack of military coordination, and difficulty passing legislation.

The United States Constitution

• James Madison/Founding Fathers

• Preamble: goals of the government (e.g., justice, domestic tranquility).

• Articles I-III: separation of powers (Legislative, Executive, Judicial branches).

• Federalism: division of power between national and state governments.

• Bill of Rights: first ten amendments guaranteeing individual liberties.

• Provides checks and balances to prevent tyranny.

• Addresses weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation by creating a strong yet limited federal government.

Federalist No. 10

James Madison

• Focused on the dangers of factions (groups with shared interests that could harm the rights of others).

• Advocated for a large republic to control factions.

• A large, diverse republic dilutes factional influence, protecting minority rights.

• A representative democracy is better than direct democracy for managing factions.

Brutus No. 1

• robert yates, maybe

• Critique of the Constitution’s strong central government.

• Concerned about the Necessary and Proper Clause and Supremacy Clause.

• A strong national government would erode state power and individual rights.

• A large republic would be unmanageable and lead to a loss of connection between people and their representatives.

Federalist No. 51

• James Madison

• Focused on checks and balances and the separation of powers

• Each branch of government must have independence and the ability to check the others to prevent tyranny.

• Federalism provides a double security for rights by dividing power between states and the federal government.

Federalist No. 70

Alexander Hamilton

• Advocated for a single, energetic executive (the President).

• A single executive ensures accountability, decisiveness, and efficiency in governance.

• Plural executives could lead to conflict and indecision.

Federalist No. 78

• Alexander Hamilton

• Defense of the judiciary and the concept of judicial review.

• The judiciary is the weakest branch but essential for protecting constitutional limits and individual rights.

• Lifetime tenure for judges ensures independence from political pressures.