The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence Chapters 1-4

Scientific Method def.

A way to answer questions that requires empirical research and data based conclusions.

Scientific Method Steps

1. Curiosity 2. Hypothesis 3. Test - empirical evidence 4. analyze 5. report results

Hypothesis

a specific prediction that can be tested

Empirical Evidence

evidence that is based on observation, experience, or experiment, not theory

Replication

the repetition of a study, using different participants

Nature

refers to the influence of the genes that people inherit genetically from parents at conception

Nurture

refers to enviornmental influences that affect development after an individual is conceived

Life Span Perspective

an approach to the study of human development that takes into account all phases of life

Critical Period

time when a particular type of development growth must happen if it is ever going to happen

Sensetive Period

time when a certain type of development is most likely to happen or happens most easily

Multidirectional Development

1. Critical Period 2. Sensitive Period

Multicontextual Development

1. Ecological 2. Historical 3. Socioeconomical

Ecological System Approach

should be considered in all context and interactios (Brofenbrenner)

1.micorsystems - family & peers

2.macrosystems - culture, econompic policies, political

3.chronosytem - historical context

4.mesosystem - connections among other systems

Cohort

group defined by shared age, share experiences in same historical events and cultural shifts

Socioeconomic Status (SES)

persons position in socity as determined by income, wealth, occupation, and place of residence ("socail class")

Multicultural Development

1. Culture 2. Social Construct

Culture

system of shared beliefs, norms, behaviors, and expectations that persist over time and prescibe social behavior and assumptions

socail construction

idea that is based on shared perceptions, not on objective reality

difference-equals-deficit error

the mistaken belief that a deviation from some norm is necessarily inferior to behavior or characteristics that meet the standard

Guided Participation

(Vygotsky) is a universal process used by mentors to teach cultural knowledge, skills, and habits. Usually informal.

Ethnic Group

peoples whose ancestors were born in the same region and who often share a language, culture, and religion

Multidisciplinary Development

1. genetics 2. epigenetics

epigenetic

referring to the effects of environmental forces on the expression of an individuals/species genetic inheritance

Methylation

biochemical elements silence certain genes

Plastic Development

1. dynamic systems 2. differential sensitivity

Dynamic Systems

a view of human development as an ongoing, ever-changing interaction between physical, cognitive, and psychosocial influences. Development is never static.

Differental Sensitivity

idea that some people are more vulnerable than others to certain experiences, usually because of genetic differences

Five Characteristics of Development

1. multidirectional

2.multidisciplinary

3.muticontextual

4.multicultural

5.plasticity

scientific observation

method of testing a hypothesis by watching an recording behavior unobtrusively in an objective mannerof a natural setting or lab

experiment

research method in with the researcher tries to determine the cause-effect relationship between two variables by manipulating one and observing the changes in the other

independent variable

experiment the variable that is introduced to see what effect it has on the dependent variable

dependent variable

experiment the variable that may change as a result of whatever the new condition or situation the experimenter adds - depends on the independent variable

case study

in-depth study of one person, requiring personal interviews to collect background info or follow up discussions, tests, or questionaires

cross-sectional research

research design that compares groups of people who differ in age but similar in other characteristics

longitudinal research

research design in which the same individuals are followed over time and their development is repeatedly assessed

cross-sequential research

hybrid research design is which researchers first study several groups of people of different ages and follow those groups over the years

correlational

number that indicates the degree of relationship between two variables, expressed in terms of the likelihood that one variable will occur when the other variable does

-positive = both increase & decrease togeather

-negative = one increases & other decreases

= one decreases & other increases

- zero = no connection is evident

ethics

set of moral principles

Development Theory

A group of ideas, assumptions, and generalizations that interpret and illuminate the thousands of observations that have been made about human growth; provides the framework for explaining that patterns and problems of development (p. 38)

Norm

An average, or typical, standard of behavior or accomplishment (p. 39)

Psychoanalytic Theory

A grand theory of human development that hold that irrational, unconscious drives and motives, often originating in childhood, underlie human behavior (p. 40)

Behaviorism (or learning theory)

A grand theory of human development that studies observable behavior (p. 43)

Conditioning

The processes by which responses become linked to particular stimuli and learning takes place (p. 43)

Classical Conditioning

The learning process in which a meaningful stimulus is connected with a neutral stimulus that had no special meaning before conditioning (p. 43)

Operant Conditioning

The learning process by which a particular action is followed by something desired or something unwanted (p. 44)

Reinforcement

When a behavior is followed by something desired (p. 45)

Social learning theory

An extension of behaviorism that emphasizes the influence that other people have over a person's behavior. Even without specific reinforcement, every individual learns through observation and imitation of other people (p. 45)

Modeling

The central process of social learning, by which a person observes the actions of others and then copies them (p. 45)

Cognitive Theory

A grand theory of human development that focuses on changes in how people think over time; our thoughts shape our attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors (p. 47)

Cognitive Equilibrium

In cognitive theory, a state of mental balance in which people are not confused because they can use their existing thought processes to understand current experiences and ideas (p. 48)

Assimilation

The reinterpretation of new experiences to fit into old ideas (p. 48)

Accommodation

The restructuring of old ideas to include new experiences (p. 48)

Information-Processing Theory

A perspective that compares human thinking processes, by analogy, to computer analysis of data, including sensory input, connections, stored memories, and output (p. 48)

Sociocultural Theory

A newer theory that holds that development results from the dynamic interaction of each person with the surrounding social and cultural forces (p. 52)

Apprenticeship in Thinking

Vygotsky's term for how cognition is stimulated and developed in people by more skilled members of their community (p. 52)

Guided Participation

The process by which people learn from others who guide their experiences and explorations; this learning is direct and interactive (p. 52)

Zone of Proximal Development

In sociocultural theory, a metaphorical area, or "zone," surrounding a learner that includes all the skills, knowledge, and concepts that the person is close ("proximal") to acquiring but cannot yet master without help (p. 52)

Humanism

A theory that stresses the potential of all humans for good and the belief that all people have the same basic needs, regardless of culture, gender, or background (p. 55)

Selective Adaptation

The process by which living creatures (including people) adjust to their environment. Genes that enhance survival and reproductive ability are selected, over the generation, to become more prevalent (p. 58)

Gamete

A reproductive cell; that is, a sperm or ovum that can produce a new individual if it combines with one from the other sex to make a zygote (p. 68)

Zygote

The single cell formed from the union of two gametes, a sperm and an ovum (p. 68)

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

The chemical composition of the molecules that contain the genes, which are the chemical instructions for cells to manufacture various proteins (p. 68)

Chromosome

One of the 46 molecules of DNA (in 23 pairs) that virtually each cell of the human body contains and that together, contain all the genes (p. 68)

Gene

A small section of a chromosome; the basic unit for the transmission of heredity. Consists of a string of chemicals that provide instructions for the cell to manufacture certain proteins (p. 68)

Allele

A variation that makes a gene different in some way from other genes for the same characteristics (p. 68)

Epigenetics

The study of how environmental factors affect genes and genetic expression - enhancing, halting, shaping, or altering the expression of genes and resulting in a phenotype that may differ markedly from the genotype (p. 69)

Genome

The full set of genes that are the instructions to make an individual member of a certain species (p. 70)

Genotype

An organism's entire genetic inheritance, or genetic potential (p. 70)

Homozygous

Referring to two genes of one pair that are exactly the same in every letter of their code (p. 70)

Heterozygous

Referring to two genes of one pair that differ in some way (p. 71)

23rd Pair

The chromosome pair that, in humans, determines sex (p. 71)

Stem Cells

Cells from which any other specialized type of cell can form (p. 74)

Monozygotic Twins (MZ)

Twins who originate from one zygote that splits apart very early in development (p. 75)

Dizygotic Twins (DZ)

Twins who are formed when two separate ova are fertilized by two separate sperm at roughly the same time (p. 77)

Assisted Reproductive Technology (ART)

A general term for the techniques designed to help infertile couples conceive and then sustain a pregnancy (p. 78)

In Vitro Fertilization (IVF)

Fertilization that takes place outside a woman's body. Procedure involves mixing sperm with ova that have been surgically removed from the woman's ovary. If a zygote is produced, it is inserted into a woman's uterus, where it may implant and develop into a baby (p. 78)

Intra-cytoplasmic Sperm Injection (ICSI)

An in vitro fertilization technique in which a single sperm cell is injected directly into an ovum (p. 78)

Phenotype

The observable characteristics of a person, including appearance, personality, intelligence, and all other traits (p. 80)

Polygenic

Referring to a trait that is influenced by many genes (p. 80)

Multifactorial

Referring to a trait that is affected by many factors, both genetic and environmental, that enhance, halt, shape, or alter the expression of genes, resulting in a phenotype that may differ markedly from the genotype (p. 80)

Human Genome Project

An international effort to map the complete human genetic code. This effort was essentially completed in 2001, though analysis is ongoing (p. 81)

Dominant-Recessive Pattern

The interaction of a heterozygous pair of alleles in such a way that the phenotype reflects one allele more than the other (p. 82)

Carrier

A person whose genotype includes a gene that is not expressed in the phenotype (p. 82)

X-linked

A gene carried on the X chromosome (p. 83)

Copy Number Variations

Genes with various repeats or deletions of base pairs (p. 84)

Heritability

A statistic that indicates what percentage of the variation in a particular trait within a particular population, in a particular context and era, can be traced to genes (p. 87)

Down Syndrome

A condition in which a person has 47 chromosomes instead of the usual 46, with 3 rather than 2 chromosomes at the 21st site (p. 90)

Fragile X Syndrome

A genetic disorder in which part of the X chromosome seems to be attached to the rest of it by a very thin string of molecules (p. 91)

Genetic Counseling

Consultation and testing by trained experts that enables individuals to learn about their genetic heritage, including harmful conditions that they may pass along to any children they may conceive (p. 93)

Germinal Period

The first two weeks of prenatal development after conception, characterized by rapid cell division and the beginning of cell differentiation.

Embryonic Period

The stage of prenatal development from approximately the third through the eighth week after conception, during which the basic forms of all body structures, including internal organs, develop.

Fetal Period

The stage of prenatal development from the ninth week after conception until birth, during which the fetus gains about 7 pounds (more than 3,000 grams) and organs become more mature, gradually able to function on their own.

Implantation

The process, beginning about 10 days after conception, in which the developing organism burrows into the placenta that lines the uterus, where it can be nourished and protected as it continues to develop.

Embryo

The name for a developing human organism from about the third through the eighth week after conception.

Fetus

The name for a developing human organism from the start of the ninth week after conception until birth.

Ultrasound

An image of a fetus (or an internal organ) produced by using high-frequency sound waves. (Also called sonogram.)

Age of Viability

The age (about 22 weeks after conception) at which a fetus might survive outside the mother's uterus if specialized medical care is available.

Apgar Scale

A quick assessment of a newborn's health. The baby's color, heart rate, reflexes, muscle tone, and respiratory effort are given a score of 0, 1, or 2 twice-- at one minute and five minutes after birth-- and each time the total of all five scores is compared with the maximum score of 10 (rarely attained)

Cesaren Section (c-section)

A surgical birth, in which incisions though the mother's abdomen and uterus allow the fetus to be removed quickly, instead of being delivered through the vagina. (Also called simple section.)

Doula

A woman who helps with the birth process. Traditionally in Latin America, a doula was the only professional who attended childbirth. Now doulas are likely to arrive at the woman's home during early labor and later work alongside a hospital staff.