Final for History of Psychology

Who was Karl Lashley?

He’s a director in the Yerkes Laboratory of Primate Biology in Florida.

He localized sites of various functions in the cortex by ablating rats’ brains at Harvard.

What is mass action?

loss of ability to perform a particular learned behavior following destruction of parts of the cortex is related more to the amount of destruction than to the location.

the cortex appeared to work as a unified whole.

What is equipotentiality?

Any part of a functional area of the brain can perform the function associated with that area.

If, following and ablation, any part of the area is spared the function would still be maintained.

What was particularly regrettable about Karl Lashley?

He’s an extremist, who wrote to a German Colleague supporting Hitler and Apartheid.

What is an engram? (Hebb)

A theoretical unit of cognitive information imprinted in a physical substance.

- Theorized to be the way memories are stored as enduring physical or chemical changes in the brain

What is the corpus callosum? Where is it located? What does it do?

- Consists of two hemispheres that intersect and exchange information

• Located in the center of the brain, specifically at the base of the longitudinal fissure

- Cross-hemispheric dominance=> left hemisphere controls right side of body and vice versa

Who was Roger Sperry? What were his two main findings about the brain?

He conducted split-brain experiments by ablating (cutting) the corpus callosum in two with mostly cats and monkeys, and then later studied humans with their corpus callosum cut.

• He got a Nobel Prize (1981) for his work.

He found that:

• Left hemisphere: language, abstract and analytical thought, calculation, and

linguistic ability

• Right hemisphere: spatial patterns and complex sounds (music)

(Also, an artist and sculptor)

Define ethology. Give some examples. Why do we study it?

The study of animal behavior, especially as it occurs in a natural environment

We study this we are trying to investigate how animal behavior relates to humans.

For example:

• Charles Darwin: theory of evolution

• Jane Goodall: chimpanzee social organization and culture

• Konrad Lorenz: Critical periods and imprinting; wrote a book on animal behavior (King Solomon’s Ring)/ Also got Nobel Prize

What is sociobiology? What are its two main ideas?

Evolutionary psychology is the idea that evolution selects for social behavior

• Social behavior affects evolution

• More sociable people cooperate better, which improves their chances of survival.

What are the two different gender-based tendencies in reproductive strategy?

There is a genetic tendency for men to employ maximizing reproductive strategies and for women to employ optimizing reproductive strategies.

What is instinctual drift? Give an example.

When highly trained animals, overtime and despite continuous reward of trained behavior, tend to revert to their instinctual behavior

(e.g., dog barks to protect family. Dog gets trained to sit quietly. Under stress, dog can revert to barking)

What is the preparedness continuum? Give an example.

When different animals are biologically prepared to form certain associations.

For instance, dogs and smell/ humans and vision.

What is behavioral genetics?

It studies the role of genetics in psychiatric disorders (alcoholism, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, etc.) and personality traits (openness to experience, conscientiousness, extroversion/introversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism).

What does polygenetic mean? Give an example.

Having their sources on multiple genes

(ex: neuroticism is likely on 136 “loci” (gene locations)

________ is the extent to which a trait or characteristic is attributable to genetics, while ________ is what characteristics or qualities we received from our parents through genes.

Heritability, inheritability

What do we know about the heritability of personality traits?

- 30%-40% of personality is heritable (not inherited)

- This number does not change between men vs. women

- Neuroticism and Openness seem most highly heritable

- Conscientiousness, Extraversion, and Agreeableness are LESS SO

What do we know about the heritability of psychopathologies?

From twin studies and adoption studies, we have found that there are 6 main disorders that have some heritability:

• Autism

• Alcoholism/substance abuse

• ADHD

• Bipolar Disorder

• Major Depression

• Schizophrenia

What do we know about the heritability of personality traits AND the heritability of psychopathology?

- Openness is correlated with bipolar disorder and schizophrenia

- Extraversion is correlated with ADHD

What do we know about the heritability of intelligence?

It is a polygenic trait.

It is influenced by more than one gene and in the case of intelligence at least 500

genes.

- Is between 40-80 percent heritable, but environment still plays a

major role at both ends.

- Lower: poor prenatal environment, malnutrition and disease, etc.,

- Higher: high-stim (enriched) environment, supportive environment, etc.,

What is cognitive psychology?

The scientific study of internal mental processes, such as perception, thinking, memory, attention and problem solving.

When was cognitive psychology first officially established?

Around the 1960s

Who was Jean Piaget? What were his contributions to cognitive psychology?

His work proved that a child’s interactions with the environment become more complex and adaptive as the child’s cognitive ability becomes more developed through maturation and experience (has known patterns and stages).

His work in cognitive development between 1930s and 1940s contributed to the revived interest in cognitive issues in 1950s.

Who was Noam Chomsky? What were his contributions to cognitive psychology?

He is an MIT linguist; he’s 97 years old now.

He argues that the human brain is genetically programmed to generate language.

Each child is born with brain structures that make it easy to learn the rules of language, and this capacity diminishes with age for most people.

Who was George Miller? What were his contributions to cognitive psychology?

He argues that the book “Human Problem Solving” (1956) marked the beginning of modern cognitive psychology.

In 1960, him and Bruner founded the Harvard center for cognitive studies through which Piaget’s ideas were popularized in the US.

Who was Leon Festinger? What were his contributions to cognitive psychology?

He’s a Social Psychologist that studied social cognition at MIT (died 1989).

He noted that one may have ideas that are compatible with, or incompatible with, one another.

He is credited with social psychology’s renouncing the previously dominant behaviorist view of social psychology.

• Discovered the idea of “cognitive dissonance”

What is cognitive dissonance? Why is it important?

When ideas are incompatible, a state of cognitive dissonance exists that is unpleasant, and can then motivate a person to change their beliefs or behavior.

What are Heider’s four types of attribution? Give an example of each.

Effort

I am good/no good because of my hard work

What are Heider’s four types of attribution? Give an example of each.

Ability

I am good/no good because of my natural abilities

What are Heider’s four types of attribution? Give an example of each.

Task

It went well/poorly because the task was hard/easy

What are Heider’s four types of attribution? Give an example of each.

Luck

It went well/poorly for a random reason

What were Heider’s “other” four types of attribution (internal/external/self/other)? Define each and give an example.

Internal self —Failed test because I’m stupid

External self—Failed test because roommate kept me up all night

Internal other—He/she failed test because they were stupid.

External other— He/she failed because it was a bad test because the professor was stressed when he made it.

What is social learning theory?

we have an innate drive, especially in early development, to imitate the behavior of others

What is Self-efficacy?

a person’s belief in their capacity to act in ways necessary to reach specific goals

Why is social learning theory and self-efficacy important?

Social learning theory and self-efficacy are important because they provide frameworks for understanding how individuals learn and develop their skills, beliefs, and behaviors

Define internal vs external locus of control. Which is probably better to have, in our culture? (Julian Rotter)

Internal— Someone who has this type of control believes that the events they experience in if

are because of their own actions.

External— Someone who has this type of control believes that the events they experience in life are because of fate, luck, etc.,

Having an internal locus of control is better to have in our culture.

What are the two main sources of bias in AI? How do they work?

Biased programming

AI learns by running programs. These programs are written by humans

- If the programs are biased, the results will be biased too

What are the two main sources of bias in AI? How do they work?

Biased learning samples

AI works, in part, by detecting patterns in enormous data sets

- The United States Federal Court system uses a program to predict the likelihood of re-offending, for prisoners being considered for parole.

- It’s called the Correctional Offender Management Profiling for Alternative Sanctions (COMPAS)

- In nearly identical cases, it labeled Black defendants as twice as likely to reoffend

- Why? It was using issued data, based on a skewed sample because more black men are incarcerated.

- Machines on their own are not racist, but if we give them biased data or algorithms, their decisions will amplify discrimination

Who was Alan Turing? What was his great contribution to World War ii?

He’s a mathematician and a Cambridge professor in England. He asked the question: Can machines really think”? He invented the Turing Test.

In WWII, he built a mechanical computer to break codes called the “Enigma machine.” He was able to break the German’s code; he managed to save millions of British soldiers’ lives.

What is the Turing Test? Has a computer “passed” this test yet?

A test of a machine’s ability to exhibit “intelligent” behavior indistinguishable from that of a human.

The computer has not quite passed this test because there are mixed results. In the future, it will happen.

What is Hebb’s rule?

States that “if neurons are successively or simultaneously active, the strength of the connections among them increases.”

- “Synapses that fire together wire together.”

Why did Phillip Zimbardo end his Stanford Prison Experiment early? Was this a good idea? Why or why not?

Things got too far with the experiment and his girlfriend told him to stop it entirely.

Who was Stanley Milgram? What was his famous experiment? How did Yale like his role in conducting the experiment?

Associated with obedience and conformity

He went to school with Phillip Zimbardo, and he taught at City University of New York Graduate Center in NYC.

- He conducted obedience experiments at Yale (electric shocks)

- Small World Phenomenon: “six degrees of separation”/ being in contact with people across the world without use of the internet

- NYC Subway experience: Defying social norms (ex: have the woman order a heavy meal, while the man order a salad and wine/ “Elevator rule”)

The APA developed guidelines (IRB) for experimentation with human subjects that include what you can or cannot do in an experiment. (Yale’s reaction)

Is diffusion of responsibility a true risk for victims in the real world? Why or why not?

Since individuals are less likely to offer help when other people are around, and victims will most likely not get the immediate help they need (diffusion of responsibility/ bystander effect).

Who founded the APA and when? What was the original composition of APA members?

It was founded in 1892 with a handful of charter members, and Stanley G. Hall is the first President of it.

Each Division of the APA has it’s own…?

Journal, dues, rules and regulations, and criteria for membership.

What is basic research in psychology? Give an example

Pure science such as Wundt

• aims to expand the understanding of fundamental principles and theories related to human behavior, cognition, and the mind

What is applied research in psychology? Give an example

Applied to practical matters, such as Hall, Cattell, and Munsterberg

• involves using psychological theories and principles to solve real-world problems and address practical issues

What’s the main difference between psychologists and psychiatrists?

Psychiatrists can prescribe medicine, while psychologists cannot prescribe. However, several state psychology licensing boards now allow them to prescribe (Louisiana, New Mexico, Illinois, Iowa, Idaho).

How many states now give prescribing authority to psychologists? Why is this authority usually approved in these states?

Five states

• They’re approved because of shortages in certain areas and want to expand more access

What two Federal agencies also give prescribing authority to Ph.D. psychologists?

The Federal Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) and the Indian Health Service (IHS)

What and when was the Boulder conference?

It was a conference on Graduate education in Clinical Psychology, and it was held in Boulder, Colorado in 1949.

- Psychologists was dissatisfied with traditional Ph.D. Training, where one is more academically oriented (doing original research)

- Designed a purposed system that is scientifically based but not as research oriented; there’s additional clinical training

- Science Practitioner Model or Boulder Model

What’s the difference between an Ph.D. and a Psy.D.?

Psy.D. focuses on clinical skills and less research, while Ph.D. programs emphasize research and scholarly activities, which includes a dissertation.

What is the replication crisis in Psychology? Why did it happen? What has been recommended to fix it?

In August 2015, the first open empirical study of reproducibility in psychology was published, called “The Reproducibility Project: Psychology.”

- Researchers redid 100 studies from three high-ranking psychology journals

It happened because the reproducibility of the empirical results is an essential part of the scientific method, and such failures affect the credibility of theories that use them.

- One explanation: Failures to replicate are due to changes in the samples between the original and replication study

- Another is that the Analysis and Methods sections of some studies were very sparse

Recommended fix: Better reporting of experimental design and statistical analyses

What is metascience? How does it relate to the replication crisis?

Uses methods of empirical research to examine empirical research practice (how should research be done most effectively).

It studies the field of psychology itself and sees what needs to improve. In this case, how to fix the replication crisis.

What is the nature of human nature?

it is is fixed. Another view is that it is infinitely malleable.

How are the mind and body related?

The body is part of the mind. We don’t know whether the mind is part of the both or which specific one is in charge.

Which is more powerful in shaping personality—nature or nurture? Why?

Both nature and nature is important in shaping personality because they both play a role in determining who we are and what we become.

Dr. John P. Spiegel

President-elect of the American Psychiatric Association (APA) in 1973 and grandfather of reporter Elyse Spiegel. He played a pivotal role in the decision to remove homosexuality from the APA's list of mental illnesses. Notably, he himself a closeted gay man, which added personal significance to his professional actions.

Elyse Speigel

Journalist and narrator of the episode. She provides a personal lens to the story, exploring her grandfather's (John) involvement and the broader implications of the APA's decision.

Dr. Irving Beiber

A psychoanalyst who advocated the view that homosexuality was a mental disorder, attributing it to family dynamics, particularly overprotective mothers and distant fathers. His work was influential in maintaining the classification of homosexuality as a pathology within the psychiatric community.

Dr. Charles Sacharedies

A psychiatrist and contemporary of Bieber, he was a vocal opponent of declassifying homosexuality as a mental illness. He argued that homosexuality was a treatable condition and was a prominent figure in debates opposing changes to the DSM

Dr. Larry Hartman

he was part of a group of reform-minded psychiatrists—often referred to as the "Young Turks"—who sought to modernize the American Psychiatric Association (APA) from within.

• Hartmann's contributions were instrumental in the APA's 1973 decision to remove homosexuality from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM),

• Homosexual

Barbara Gittings

A pioneering lesbian activist who organized protests and educational efforts to challenge the classification of homosexuality as a mental illness. She played a key role in orchestrating Dr. Fryer's appearance at the APA convention.

Dr. John Fryer

A gay psychiatrist who, under the pseudonym "Dr. Anonymous," spoke at the 1972 APA convention wearing a mask to conceal his identity. His testimony highlighted the discrimination faced by gay professionals and was influential in changing perceptions within the APA.

Dr. Judd Marmour

Initially holding traditional views on homosexuality, his perspective evolved over time. He became a proponent of removing homosexuality from the DSM, serving as APA president in 1975–76, and played a significant role in shifting the psychiatric community's stance.

Evelyn Hooker

Her studies demonstrated that homosexual men were as psychologically healthy as heterosexual men, providing empirical evidence that influenced the APA's decision.

Sam Fram

A gay friend of Evelyn Hooker who encouraged her to conduct research on homosexuality. His suggestion led to Hooker's influential studies that questioned prevailing psychiatric views

Dr. Robert Spitzer

A prominent psychiatrist who led the APA's task force that recommended the removal of homosexuality from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM). His efforts were instrumental in the redefinition of homosexuality within the psychiatric community.

Ronald Gold

A journalist and activist with the Gay Activists Alliance, he played a pivotal role in advocating for the declassification of homosexuality as a mental disorder. He collaborated with APA members to facilitate discussions that ultimately led to the change.