Key Terms for Why Religion Matters Final Exam

A collection of key terms and their definitions to aid in studying for the Why Religion Matters final exam.

anti-Judaism

Religiously motivated opposition to Judaism, often rooted in theological arguments rather than racial or ethnic prejudice.

Connections:

1. Anti-Judaism underpins Christian supersessionism, which claims Christianity replaces Judaism in God’s plan, marginalizing Jewish practices and beliefs.

2. This religious ideology contributed to centuries of Christian discrimination against Jews, setting the foundation for modern antisemitism, which expanded the bias into racial terms.

antisemitism

Hostility, prejudice, or discrimination against Jews as an ethnic or racial group.

Connections:

1. The Holocaust exemplifies the devastating impact of antisemitism, drawing on racialized theories like polygenism and Christian-inflected ideas of Jewish inferiority.

2. Unlike anti-Judaism, which is theological, antisemitism developed alongside modern racial science, as seen in the work of Josiah Nott and the categorization of Jews as a distinct biological type.

Babri Masjid

A 16th-century mosque in Ayodhya, India, destroyed in 1992 by Hindu nationalist mobs claiming it was built on the birthplace of the god Rama.

Connections:

1. Its destruction is central to Hindu nationalism and the ideology of Hindutva, both of which seek to define Indian identity in exclusively Hindu terms.

2. The documentary In the Name of God shows how the demolition sparked religious violence and politicized the Ramayana, portraying Rama as a nationalist figure rather than a mythological hero.

BJP (Bharatiya Janata Party)

India’s right-wing political party closely aligned with Hindu nationalist ideologies, particularly Hindutva.
Connections:

1. The BJP has supported movements to rebuild a temple to Rama on the former Babri Masjid site, linking religious myth (Ramayana) to nationalist politics.

2. Anand Patwardhan’s In the Name of God critiques the BJP’s role in stoking communal tensions by weaponizing religious symbols and narratives for political gain.

blood libel

False accusation that Jews murder Christian children to use their blood for religious rituals, especially during Passover.

Connections:

1. Blood libel is a historic example of Christian anti-Judaism transforming into racialized antisemitism, feeding into broader narratives of Jewish otherness.

2. This myth laid the groundwork for modern antisemitic conspiracy theories, contributing to the long history of scapegoating Jews, culminating in events like the Holocaust.

canon

An authoritative collection of texts regarded as sacred or central within a religious tradition.

Connections:

1. The Christian biblical canon includes four canonical gospels—Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John—while excluding texts like the Gospel of Thomas and Gospel of Mary.

2. Debates around canon formation relate to authority, legitimacy, and theological control, as seen in gnostic texts being labeled heretical for presenting alternative views on Jesus and salvation.

Christian supersessionism

The belief that Christianity has replaced Judaism as the true religion, rendering Jewish law and identity obsolete.

Connections:

1. This idea reinforced theological anti-Judaism and justified Christian appropriation of Hebrew scriptures while denying Jewish legitimacy.

2. Terence Keel’s work shows how supersessionist logic also influenced racial science, blending Christian teleology with Enlightenment-era classifications of human difference.

Dasaratha

The king of Ayodhya and father of Rama in the Hindu epic Ramayana.

Connections:

1. His decision to exile Rama reflects a dharma dilemma—he must keep a promise to his wife Kaikeyi even though it causes personal and political pain.

2. Dasaratha’s role emphasizes the conflict between personal desire and duty, which recurs throughout Ramayana as a core theme.

dharma

In Hinduism, this refers to one’s duty, righteousness, or moral order, often dependent on social role, context, and cosmic law.

Connections:

1. In the Ramayana, Rama follows his dharma as a son by accepting exile, even though it brings injustice and suffering.

2. Sita and Lakshmana also grapple with dharma, illustrating how it demands sacrifice and may conflict with personal emotions or family loyalty.

gnostic

Referring to early Christian movements that emphasized secret knowledge (gnosis) for salvation and often portrayed the material world as corrupt.

Connections:

1. The Gospel of Thomas and Gospel of Mary are examples of gnostic texts that challenge canonical narratives by focusing on inner enlightenment rather than Christ’s death or resurrection.

2. Gnostic beliefs contrast with orthodox Christian teachings found in the canonical gospels, highlighting early theological diversity in Christianity.

gospel

A written account of the life, teachings, death, and resurrection of Jesus; the term means 'good news.'

Connections:

1. The four canonical gospels—Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John—present distinct theological perspectives on Jesus.

2. The existence of non-canonical gospels like Thomas and Mary complicates the notion of a fixed Christian narrative, especially before the canon was established.

Hanuman

The monkey god and devoted servant of Rama in the Ramayana, known for his strength, loyalty, and courage.

Connections:

1. Hanuman exemplifies bhakti (devotion) and dharma through his unwavering loyalty to Rama and Sita.

2. His image is often used in Hindu nationalist symbolism, especially by groups like the VHP, to promote militant religiosity and masculine ideals.

ha-satan

In the Hebrew Bible, means 'the accuser' and refers to a divine figure who tests human virtue.

Connections

Ha-satan is not yet the devil figure of later Christian thought but plays a role within God’s court to challenge Job’s righteousness.

This depiction opens theological questions about suffering, divine justice, and theodicy, central to both Jewish and Christian interpretations.

Hindu nationalism

The political ideology that seeks to define Indian identity primarily in Hindu religious terms.

Connections:

1. It motivates actions like the destruction of the Babri Masjid and the political rhetoric of the BJP.

2. Hindu nationalism uses texts like the Ramayana and figures like Rama to justify exclusion of non-Hindu groups, particularly Muslims.

Hindutva

A cultural and political ideology promoting Hindu values as essential to Indian national identity.

Connections:

1. Promoted by the BJP and VHP, Hindutva frames India as inherently Hindu, marginalizing religious minorities.

2. In the Name of God critiques how Hindutva distorts religious epics like the Ramayana to fuel political violence and historical revisionism.

Holocaust

The genocide of six million Jews by Nazi Germany, fueled by racial antisemitism and state ideology.

Connections:

1. The Holocaust was shaped by scientific racism rooted in ideas like polygenism and monogenism, as discussed in Terence Keel’s book.

2. Texts like Yosl Rakover Talks to God reflect Jewish theological grappling with suffering and faith in the wake of atrocity.

itihasa

Means 'thus it was' and refers to epic narrative literature in Hinduism, particularly the Ramayana and Mahabharata.

Connections:

1. The Ramayana as itihasa blends myth, moral instruction, and historical imagination.

2. These texts function similarly to canonical scriptures, shaping cultural identity and ethical behavior across generations.

kavya

Classical Sanskrit poetry known for its ornate style and emphasis on emotion, metaphor, and aesthetics.

Connections:

1. Valmiki’s Ramayana is considered both itihasa and kavya, combining moral narrative with literary beauty.

2. The poetic style of kavya reinforces the divine and emotional resonance of Rama and Sita’s story.

Lakshmana

Rama’s devoted brother who joins him in exile and protects Sita in the Ramayana.

Connections:

1. Lakshmana’s refusal to leave Sita alone (until forced) demonstrates a conflict between sibling loyalty and gendered boundaries of dharma.

2. His role highlights male guardianship in patriarchal Hindu epics and contributes to idealized familial loyalty in Hindu culture.

modern scientific appropriation of Christian supersessionism

Refers to how racial science adopted Christian ideas of historical progress and chosenness to justify hierarchies of race.

Connections:

1. Terence Keel shows how scientists like Blumenbach and Nott used Christian teleological thinking to define racial difference and justify white supremacy.

2. This appropriation lent “scientific” credibility to racial categories and policies, influencing ideas of evolution and human origin.

mongrel epistemology

A mixed or hybrid way of knowing that blends religious, scientific, and cultural frameworks.

Connections:

1. Keel argues that 19th-century racial science was not secular but rooted in mongrel epistemologies that fused Christian theology with Enlightenment rationality.

2. This helps explain how ideas like polygenism were legitimated using both scripture and empirical claims.

monogenism

The belief that all humans share a single origin, often tied to biblical creation narratives.

Connections:

1. Blumenbach supported monogenism and argued for human unity, yet still classified races hierarchically.

2. This idea underpins certain anti-racist claims but also retained Christian assumptions about divine design and degeneration.

polygenism

The belief that different races have separate origins, used historically to justify racial inequality and slavery.

Connections:

1. Josiah Nott promoted polygenism to argue that African and white races were fundamentally different and unequal.

2. Polygenism often invoked pseudoscience and distorted biblical narratives to support segregation and medical racism.

rakshasa

In Hindu mythology, rakshasas are demons or malevolent beings, often in conflict with gods or dharmic heroes.

Connections:

1. Ravana, the antagonist of the Ramayana, is a rakshasa who abducts Sita and symbolizes adharma (unrighteousness).

2. Hindu nationalist rhetoric sometimes racializes rakshasas to portray Muslims or Dalits as evil, reflecting mythologized political agendas.

Rama

The divine prince and central hero of the Ramayana, considered an avatar of Vishnu.

Connections:

1. Rama’s story emphasizes ideal kingship, marital fidelity, and obedience to dharma.

2. Politicized as a Hindu nationalist symbol, Rama is invoked in calls for Ramrajya and temple reconstruction at the Babri Masjid site.

Ramrajya

Means 'the rule of Rama' and represents an idealized Hindu kingdom characterized by justice, prosperity, and dharma.

Connections:

1. Gandhi used Ramrajya to envision moral Indian governance, but Hindu nationalists use it to promote a Hindu-only India.

2. The destruction of the Babri Masjid was framed as reclaiming Ramrajya, blending myth with political violence.

Ravana

The rakshasa king of Lanka who abducts Sita in the Ramayana; he is both a villain and a complex figure of power and devotion.

Connections:

1. Ravana’s defeat by Rama symbolizes the triumph of dharma over evil, but some South Indian and Dalit traditions honor him as a misunderstood ruler.

2. Ravana’s portrayal has been co-opted by Hindu nationalists to frame current enemies of the Hindu state as embodiments of evil.

secular creationism

The use of scientific narratives to reinforce theological ideas of human origins and purpose without overt religious language.

Connections:

1. Keel shows how geneticists assumed Europeans were more advanced than Africans when interpreting Neanderthal DNA, a secular version of chosenness.

2. This re-packages religious hierarchy within “objective” science, continuing supersessionist logic in modern biology.

Sita

Rama’s wife in the Ramayana, revered for her chastity, devotion, and endurance of suffering.

Connections:

1. Sita’s trial by fire after her rescue from Ravana reflects patriarchal anxieties about female purity and dharma.

2. Sita’s story has inspired feminist retellings and critiques of Hindu gender norms, even as she remains an idealized figure in mainstream devotion.

smrti

Means 'that which is remembered' and refers to a category of Hindu sacred literature.

Connections:

1. Unlike śruti (revealed texts like the Vedas), smrti texts are authored and shaped by human memory and social context.

2. The Ramayana as smrti allows flexibility in interpretation, enabling its use in diverse political, devotional, and artistic settings.

synoptic problem

The puzzle of the literary relationship between the gospels of Matthew, Mark, and Luke, which share significant similarities.

Connections:

1. Most scholars believe Mark was written first and used as a source by Matthew and Luke, along with a hypothetical source called “Q.”

2. Understanding this helps distinguish theological agendas—e.g., Matthew emphasizes Jewish law more, while Mark is more apocalyptic.

VHP (Vishva Hindu Parishad)

A Hindu nationalist organization that promotes Hindutva ideology and campaigns for religious and political Hindu unity.

Connections:

1. The VHP played a major role in the mobilization to destroy the Babri Masjid, linking religious sentiment to political activism.

2. It uses religious symbols like Hanuman and Rama to create a militant Hindu identity aligned with BJP goals.

Warsaw Ghetto

A Jewish district in Nazi-occupied Poland where an armed uprising occurred in 1943 against the Nazis.

Connections:

1. The Warsaw Ghetto Uprising is a symbol of Jewish resistance during the Holocaust, challenging passive victim narratives.

2. Zvi Kolitz’s Yosl Rakover Talks to God was written as a fictional last testament from the Ghetto, wrestling with divine silence in the face of atrocity.