Exam 2 - Long answer

Signs of osteoporosis

• Lower bone density

• Bone fracture (vertebral bodies, expressed as hunchback or loss of height)

• Calcium deficiency

• Vitamin D deficiency

• Spontaneous fractures

Risk factors of osteoporosis

• Lack of exercise

• Family history

• asian/caucasian female

•  Calcium deficiency

• Protein deficiency 

• Vitamin D deficiency

• Post menopausal (no estrogen to stimulate the production of proteins)

• Drug abuse

Effect of a tumor on your parathyroid gland

• A tumor on your parathyroid gland will cause overproduction of the hormone, causing Ca ion breakdown from bones and into the blood

• Presents as high Ca levels in blood, weaker bones

Function of the nasal conchae

• Swirl inside (and then IN the nasal cavity)

  • Add moisture (dissolving chemicals that come in the air)

  • Warm the air

  • Clean the air by trapping microbes in the mucus of the nasal cavity

  • Bringing air towards the olfactory nerves

Abdominal curvatures of the spine (and describe)

• Scoliosis – lateral curvature of the spine

• Lordosis and kyphosis are normal; however, too much is abnormal

  • Too much lordosis in pregnant women or obese people

  • Kyphosis in osteoporotic women

Male pelvis characteristics

• Narrow and deep

• Closer acetabulum

• Less than or equal to 90 degrees subpubic angle

Female pelvis characteristics

• Wider and shallow

• Wider position of the acetabulum

• Greater than 90 degrees subpubic angle

Points of articulation among the proximal ends of the ulna and radius, and the distal end of the humerus

• Distal end of humerus has trochlea and capitulum 

• Proximal ends of radius has a head that articulates with the capitulum of humerus

• Proximal end of ulna has trochlear notch which articulates with trochlea of humerus

• Between proximal end of ulna and head of radius is radial notch (LOCATED ON ULNA)

What is the carpal tunnel anatomy

• An anatomical feature

• Space between your carpal bones and flexors retinaculum

• The space holds the median nerve, the ulnar nerve, arteries and veins, tendons of muscles

What is carpal tunnel syndrome

• Overuse causes an inflammatory reaction from tendons and the tendon sheath surrounding tendons, increasing in size

• Swelling compromising the median nerve, which causes loss of function of the first 3.5 fingers

Functions of synovial fluid

• Lubricates joints

• Nourishes

• Removes chemical waste

• Antimicrobial protection (presence of some white blood cells)

• Cushioning for joints so bones aren't pressing hard against each other

• Produced by synovial membranes (inner part) → seeping secretion

• At night, we produce less and thicker synovial fluid

Name types of arthritis

• Rheumatoid arthritis

• Osteoarthritis 

• More common in women than men

Rheumatoid arthritis

• Chronic inflammatory disorder

• Begins with inflammation of synovial membrane

• Inflammatory cells migrate into joint cavity from blood causing breakdown of body tissues

• Accumulation of synovial fluid causes swelling and results in eventual thickening of synovial membrane

Osteoarthritis

• Most common

• Associated with normal aging process and wear on joints

• Appearance is softened, roughened, eroded joints

Effects of aging on joints

• Age increase can be linked with weight gain, which leads to an increase in pressure on avascular hyaline cartilages in joints

• Increased probability of fracture that can affect joints

• Production of synovial fluid slows down

necessities for bone to grow in length

in order to perform:

• presence of growth plates

• growth hormone produced by pituitary gland

• proper nutrients such as amino acids

• muscles pulling on bones to encourage remodeling

necessities for bone to grow in diameter

• anyone can do it

• only bones under muscle stress can grow appositionally

• adequate nutrients (vitamin d, protein, calcium)

where does atlas articulate with

articulates superioriorly with occipital condyles of skull
Inferiorly with axis

where does axis articulate with

articulates superiorly with atlas via dens of axis

where does cervical vertebrae articulate with

cervical vertebrae above and below it (C1-C7)

where does thoracic vertebrae articulate with

vertebrae above and below it (T1-T12)
costal facets articulate with head of rib
tubercle of rib articulates with transverse costal facet on transverse process

where does lumbar vertebrae articulate with

vertebrae above and below (L1-L5)
L5 articulates inferiorly with sacrum at lumbosacral joint

process of bone growing in length

• cartilage cells are made at the growth plate

• only children have growth plates

• cartilage gets pushed outwards by new cells

• cartilage gets turned into bone via osteoblasts which replace it with bone tissue

process of bone growing in diameter

• its an adjustment to environmental stress

• osteoblasts add layers to bone on “outside”

• osteoclasts remove layers of the bone on the inside of the bone to prevent it from becoming too heavy