anthropology finial

focus on last third

homo erectines: out of africa environment

traditionally tropical and semi-tropical areas, migration lead to ‘colonizing’ of mountain and temperate zones

earliest sites in Europe

Georgia 1.8 my, Italy 7 800 000, Spain 1 000 000

2 types of migration

near east and north along the Indian ocean coast; migration happened in pulses not everyone at once

why migrate

need more territory, access to more plants and animals, wanderlust

fossil morphology of homo erectines

cranial capacity 800-1200cc \[larger then habilis average of 1000cc\], height around 3-5 feet, found a complete skeleton of 12yr boy

homo floresuensis \[hobbits\]

found on isle of Flores Indonesia in 2004, look like dwarf versions of erectines; dwarfism was common on islands, died out 13000 BP

H. erectus technology and culture

acheulian stones tools; more sophisticated, had more types of stone and styles of tools, and more methods of making tools

acheulian tools

worked biblically \[both sides\] cutting edge was longer then oldawan, was created using soft and hard percussion; soft percussion the force and deration of blows are better controlled

oldawan tools

one sided cutting edge, short, used hard percussion to make tool

fire \[H. erectines\]

evidence of use swartkarns south africa 1.3mya and evidence in France; no evidence for making fire until 8900k \[hearths\]

NE China

warm climate 21mya, bone tools , hunting big game and gathering, settlements terra Amata

glaciation Pleistocene

climate shifts, glaciers 2km thick, environment made up of tundra and pine forests, as ice reduces climates shift upwards, sea levels drop exposing continental shelves, around 5-22 glacial episodes around 80-100 000 yrs in length, interglacial period \[warm period\] between 15 000-20 000 yrs, cause of glaciers due to earth wobble and tectonic plates moving

Neanderthals first discovery

first discovered in 1856 feldhofer cave, first interpretations were skeleton of lost napoleon soldier from the armies retreat from Russia and french perceived it as a deformed germen escapee from a insane asylum

2 types of Neanderthals’

la ferrassie; skull differently shaped had low sloping forehead

maxilla; skull large for big teeth, prognathic face, mandible \[heavy and robust\] no chin

hebora cave

origins of language found in 1986

hyoid 60 000ya \[not changed since, similar to modern\]

alapuerca Neanderthals’ 400kya \[not anatomically capable of modern speaking or any speaking\]

Neanderthal cranial capacity

1250-1650m/ averaging 1450

Neanderthal phylogeny

began splitting from our line 600 000ya, comes from a common ancestor equivalent to east Asia, not a direct ancestor

Neanderthal technology \[middle Paleolithic\]

Mousterian stone tools; levaltsis techniques, used jaws and teeth as vices to make tools and hold objects \[wear pattern on teeth\], 125 000-35 000ya flaked point hand axes and scraping tools, made tools by removing chips from the sides and top turning the core into specialized tools

Neanderthal hunting

hunting gathering communities, used spear tip \[earliest wooden spears 400 000ya\], hunted large prey such as elephant and deer, hunting was done by both women and men, close range hunting injuries due to this

Neanderthal diet

suffered from nutritional stress, enamel hypoplasia 40% suggested edible sources to be scarce \[glacial period\], cannibalism \[evidence from cut marks on bone\] during ice age scarce food sources

Neanderthal social structure

groups of 30-50 people, women died before 30 \[childbirth\], short life span cause a need for maturing and reproducing earlier, cared for the sick injured disabled and elderly

la Chappelle aux saints

skeleton of 40 yr old man with serve arthritis and paralysis as well as broken jaw and missing teeth was presumed by french anthropologist to be a fossil of typical Neanderthal

Neanderthal burials

first clear evidence of burials found in shanidar, 4 people each in the fetal position cover in pollen from flowers far from burial site. family burial ‘plot’ consists of full burials, a half burial\[ died far family only brought a piece back to burry\] and an empty burial symbolic grave of the family member. burial represents a change in intelligence and perceptions of an afterlife

anatomically modern homo sapiens \[AMHS\]

first fossils 100 000ya, evolved c. 150 000ya in africa

anatomically modern homo sapiens physical features

chin, flat face, round head

anatomically modern homo sapiens intelligince

brain is smaller and more efficient \[1350cc\] and can process the same or better, start creating art and have better communication skills

anatomically modern homo sapiens Christopher stringer

believed anatomically modern homo sapiens evolved in africa once between 150 000 -100 000ya

\[AMHS\] out of africa Eve theory

uses mtDNA inherited from mother changes only with mutation therefore can predict rate of change and when the change occurred, very conservative,

mtDNA

mitochondrial DNA: genetic distance, the source area \[africa\] with the greatest diversity, less diversity as you move out of africa

AMHS evidence of out of africa

90 000BP border cave klasies river mouth, beginning of migration pluses, evidence of skulls in skhul isreal, migration is in different directions not a single route, typically following the coast

AMHS religion…?

clear symbolic behaviour in Blombos cave South Africa earliest art 75 000ya engraved ochre plaque

AMHS Europe

earliest Crimea 40 000, general Europe AMHS replaced Neanderthals everywhere, last holdout of Neanderthals Portugal 27 000BP

Upper Paleolithic chronology 35 000 - 10 000 ya, 5 subdivisions

Azilian \[Mesolithic?\]; 11 000 - 9 000 BP

Magdalenian \[la Madeleine\]; 18 000 - 11 000 BP

Solutrean \[le Solutre\], projectile points; 22 000 - 18 000 BP

Gravettian; 30 000 - 22 000 BP

Aurignacian \[Aurignac\], blade tools; 35 000 - 30 000 BP

Upper Paleolithic environment

areas covered by glaciers during the height of last glacial period: north and central Europe, north Asia, Tibet, etc.; Würm, sea level 150m, and cold and dry

third phase of Würm glacial; artic tundra, extremally cold winters and short summers

Upper Paleolithic skeletal types

Magnon 1; eyzies, France

Wajak 1; java, Indonesia

Upper Paleolithic art

first clear evidence of art with a sense of aesthetic meaning a leap in cognitive ability; traditional view of evolution 30 000 - 10 000 BP, media such as painting \[caves, pebbles\] engraving \[weapons, tools, plaques\] and sculptures \[women, men, animals\]

Upper Paleolithic art 2 types

cave: SW Europe only, cave Lascaux 600 paintings and 1500 engravings \[17 000 ya\], paintings are on walls and ceilings, earliest paintings in the world Leang Tedongnge cave Indonesia 45 000 ya

art moblier \[mobile\]: small statues of women/Venus \[general mother/fertility goddess\] maybe by women artists, toys, complex figurines with distinctive facial features, clothes and headdresses, animal statues, statues of everyday life, jewelry,

Upper Paleolithic new technology

blades made through pressure flaking blades typically long and thin, types of other tools

scrapers \[prepping hides\]

bone tools; shaft straightener, spear thrower, awls and sewing needles \[abundant\] made with grinding tools

atlatl spear thrower

plus increased efficiency of lithic tech from H. habilis to H. sapiens

Upper Paleolithic food sources

hunting: generalized tactic to anything that moves, herd species \[horses, reindeer, etc.\], wooly mammoth and cave bears

fishing: first evidence 90 000 ya in S Africa, 60 000 ya in Indonesia after 35 000 ya found everywhere leading to ‘exploiting’ a variety of aquatic resources such as fish and mussels

Upper Paleolithic ice econ and specialized hunting

economics: hunting and storing, europe- big kills twice a year, south Russia hunting horses and mammoths

specialized hunting: 99% horse, drive animals off cliff edge, seasonal migration route

Upper Paleolithic; Solutrean clothing and music

eyed needles; fitted clothing made from hides and leathers with sinew used as thread

music; flutes and drums

Upper Paleolithic gathering

bulk of diets probably plant based, some preserved plants such as acorns, used baskets to hold food \[dolni vestonice\]

stone grinding tools useful for plant processing ex grind plant food and make pigments

Upper Paleolithic settlements

inside and outside caves, temporary encampments for seasonal movements, multi-band camps

Upper Paleolithic dolni vestonice

macro-band site \[100 ppl\] in the Czechs republic, Moravia, c. 25 000 ya

upper settlement divided into 2 activity areas made up of 4 ovoid huts and 1 subsiding hut, picket fence, hearth in centre \[2m long 3m deep\], huts are made up of wood and mammoth bones with internal hearths, huts size range from 12 people \[40**m**2\] - 40 people \[120m2\]

the subsiding hut differences from others; earthen construction \[wooden structure beneath\], 28m2 floor area, 2500 clay figures of humans and animals, no daily activity debris, a few hollow bones \[flutes or pipes\], finger print 27 000 BP

Upper Paleolithic dolni vestonice shaman

buried in main compound, covered in pollens of several flowers, female around 40yrs with face disfigured on the left caused by pathological paralyses condition and artifacts found in 1936 and 1948 of her craved in ivory, implying she also had special burial status

Origins of Food Production major development transitions

earliest technology east africa 2.5 mya, AMHS \[complex language\] 150 000 - 130 000 ya, earliest agriculture 12 000 ya south-west Asia, earliest states 5000 ya south-west Asia/north africa

Origins of Food Production archeologist attention

shows major changes in life \[what is being eaten, relation to pop size, etc.\], health \[backaches, diseases\], diet \[poor or not\], status of gender \[women lower typically\]

Origins of Food Production aberration

evolved biologically as foragers; bodies adapted for hunter gather diets ex first nation have diabetes due to eating European food for last 100 yrs and not the food they adapted to over thousands of years

Origins of Food Production; agriculture, sedentism, pop growth; 2 types

hunter-gathers: high mobility meaning have children every 4-5 yrs leaving 3-2 kids after the death of some within a 20yr reproductive life

farmers: low to no mobility meaning regular diet and children every 1-2 yrs; total of 4-5 kids after some died but also the advantage of having more hands to help out leading to drastic population growth as villages develop

Origins of Food Production; what is it

activities which artificially increase plant or animal yields, and being able to produce your own food

Origins of Food Production; types of production

agriculture: farming plants

pastoralism: farming animals

aquaculture: farming and/or catching fish

Origins of Food Production; leisure time

hunter gathers: spend around 2 hours a day gathering food and have free time the rest of the day

farmers: work long hours doing tough back breaking work and have no free time

Origins of Food Production; pros and cons farming v hunter-gathers

hunter-gathers: dependent on seasonally available food; ups and downs throughout the year, and not all seasons provide i.e. early spring

farmers: evens out availability of food to year round, have animals for meat if needed

Origins of Food Production; domestication

genetic modification \[genotype\] and changes to physical characteristics \[phenotype\], of the plant or animal, control of reproduction to point where organisms is dependent upon humans for survival and growth of their species; this is different then taming, capturing from the wild, or ferial animals \[domestic animals which became wild\]

Origins of Food Production; why the occurrence of food production

trend occurring in many areas as glacial periods and abundant sources disappear \[reindeer, salmon, etc.\]

broad spectrum revolution: near east 20 000 BP big game disappears leading to all sorts of marginal and small resources being ‘exploited’ such as frogs, lizards, clams, rodents, etc. this resulted in population crash

Origins of Food Production; domestic food is where

primary areas: near east, China, Mesoamerica

secondary areas: Indus valley, SE Asia, Andes, sub-Saharan Africa, eastern north America

Origins of Food Production; new plants

wheat \[emmer and einkorn\], barley

change from wild plants; increased size, hard rachis \[easier to gather, did this by only replanting the plants that had this characteristic\], and naked glume

Origins of Food Production; archaeological indicators of agriculture

domestic forms of plants, agricultural terraces, specialized tools \[sickle, grinding stone, ceramics, etc.\], and irrigation canals 5000 BC

Origins of Food Production; domestication of animals, types of animals

gregarious animals are most easily domesticated, they follow a dominant lead herd member. domestication may start with hunters dependent on herd animals using ‘herd management strategies“ leading to domestication via capturing and eventually the animal dependent on smaller range of foods

Origins of Food Production; domestication of animals, classic changes in age ratio

wild: kill all adult males soon becomes leave only the ‘best’ animals for reproduction

domesticated: kill the young males rather then the old, does not endanger the herd

there is also a decrease in size by 50% selecting for smaller and docile animals

Origins of Food Production ;domestication of animals, primary and secondary products

primary: only get once from animal ex, meat, blood, hid, furs, sinew, etc.

secondary: can repeatedly get from the animal ex, milk, wool \[og sheep were hairy not wooly\], horse power \[pull ploughs, carts and so on\], dung, etc.

most likely domesticated for secondary ex, dogs domesticated 20 000 - 30 000 ya upper Paleolithic for hunting, guarding and sled pulling

Origins of Food Production; domesticated landscapes

deforestation, multi-cropping, mono-cropping

Origins of Food Production; technology changes

new tools for food processing leading to the neolithic period, neolithic meaning technological and behavioral

Origins of Food Production; neolithic technology and behavior

technology: stone tool made by grinding rather then flaking \[comes to use around same time as agriculture in some areas\], tools and functions; grinding tool used for grains, hoe for dirt, axes cutting trees down, adzes for woodworking

behavioral: period where food production is used and domesticated foods are main food source meaning few varieties of foods

Origins of Food Production; neolithic general

ceramics hallmark of middle neolithic, settled villages, ground stone technology, no metallurgy

Origins of Food Production; where does neolithic domestication of plants and animals happen independently

near east 12 000 - 10 000 BP, China 8000 BP, Mesoamerica 4000 BP, Andes 2000 BP

Origins of Food Production; where did later neolithic domestication occur

first in Europe and Indus Valley, later in Chins, sub-Saharan Africa, and South East Asia

Origins of Food Production; neolithic sedentism

except near east, early farming villages, early civilization, fertile crescent

colonization Australia; how did we get there

no evidence in Australia for any other homo species then modern humans, may have gotten there by raft or island hopping and coast route during last ice age

colonization Australia; earliest sites

south east Australia sites date back to 730 000 BP, suggesting earliest migration to be c. 40 000 ya or earlier, lake mungo dry beds have sites around the edges dating to 32 000 BP \[C14 and TL\] features shells fish mammal bones human burials hearths and clay oven, also art oldest in the world of animals and naturalistic things

colonization Americas; chronology

no humans in new world till end of Paleolithic and Pleistocene, got there via Beringia 2000 KM wide from north south exposed from 80 000 - 35 000 BP and again from 29 000 - 11 000 BP, only evidence for coastal migration

colonization Americas; Berginia

land bridge connecting what is Alaska to Serbia today, covered in tundra environment, had marshes and grasslands, supported herds such as reindeer, bison, mammoths, muskoxen, horses, etc.

today it is the Bering straits easy to cross only 50 miles wide of open water Inuit did it regularly when the waters frozen until the cold war

colonization Americas; earliest sites

Yukon blue fish cave 20 000 ya, Alaska fisherman’s lake 16 000 - 20 000 BP, both have stone tools and butchering marks on bones

Mexico and south wards sites dating from 20 000 - 12 000 year range

colonization Americas; earliest sites south America

along coastal route, center of north America colonized after 14 000 ya, Monte Verde Chile 13 000 BP cool forested residential settlement site made up of 12 hut along stream, 2 large hearths, a number of shallow clay basins, around 25 people

colonization Americas; late Pleistocene ice free corridor

narrow corridor between ice sheets by foot hills of Rockies, blocked by glaciers, no food cold and miserable

colonization Americas; migration routes

travel by coast until California-Mexico border and keep going south, glaciers block inland travel, coastal route also opened earlier then inland route and provided more resources

colonization Americas; north America earliest cultures

Paleoindian cultures

Clovis: 14 000- 12 000 BP, fluted spear points, hunter-gathers, best know site butchering and big game, dependent on plant food evidence from processing tools

Folsom: 12 000 - 10 000 BP \[8000 - 10 000 BCE\], smaller better made fluted spear points, kill site found in 1926 with remains of 23 bison and spear points, first site with both human artifact and faunal remain, also changed perception of when first nations arrived at end of Pleistocene

colonization Americas; environmental change of plains

as glaciers melt environmental zone shift upwards this ends c. 3000 ya, Manitoba: 1-2 m thick ice sheet, glaciers retreating until cold snap 11 000 ya last for 1000 yrs \[younger dryas\] warms again, slowly retains modern environment lake Agassiz drains in to Atlantic

colonization Americas; Pleistocene mega faunal extintion

end of Pleistocene 35 species \[half\] became extinct in north America \[mammoth, mastodon, giant bison, and giant ground sloth\], effects of extinction lead to Folsom hunting styles

colonization Americas; early archaeological cultures

last of the mega cultures, Plano\[great plains culture, continuation of Folsom\], al environments moving north, archaic period gathering 6000 - 1000 BC and domestication of the dog

colonization Americas; woodland cultures

1000 BC - 0 AD, domesticated food\[ corn, beans, squash\], villages, social units grow \[tribes\], biological evidence for new world peoples

colonization Americas; genetic and linguistic evidence for migration

three waves:

earliest 15 000 ya

BC and Alaska 8000 ya

Inuit 2000 - 1000 ya

European Asian and African for last 500 yrs is only most recent

complex human societies; order of social evolution

bands => tribes => chiefdoms => states

civilization is not best term better is sate or complex society

complex human societies; signs/symbols of states

monumental works symbols of power of the elite of society ex, huge public buildings, temples, pyramids, tombs, etc.

complex human societies; food surplus

intensive farming strategies needed to so laborers are fed and can be strong to build monumental works

complex human societies; urban centers \[cities\]

associated challenges: maintaining order, resolving disputes, distribution of food, transportation, disposal of human waste, restricting behavior detrimental to larger groups, etc.

cities appear 6000 ya identifiable by population size and aggregation or concentration

complex human societies; states

appear 5500 ya identifiable by settlement system made up of 3 tier hierarchy above general population\[ cities, town, village, farmsteads\], functions of tiers; each level in the hierarchy services a different level of society

complex human societies; Mesopotamia

first urbanized state, land between 2 rivers \[Tigris and Euphrates\], first cities: the Uruk period 4000 - 3000 BC, in 3500 BC a number of communities became large, Uruk \[Warka\] grew to 10 000+ people by 4700 BP it expanded to 50 000 people

complex human societies; urbanism

large capital with fortified walls and populations of 100 000. hyper urbanism: 80% urban, 80% - 90% of people are food producers, cities become centers for religion, craft production, and commerce

complex human societies; irrigation

increase of food production, making production and food resources stable, irrigation canal construction requires labor \[and organization\], irrigation systems allow for greater productivity

complex human societies; Sumerian religion

chaos threatens, gads create humans, gods are landowners humans are servants, humans impersonate gods in ritual, fear of punishment

complex human societies; social stratification

cemetery city of Ur: contained 2000 graves, only 16 elite \[stone chambers with vaulted roofs, elaborate grave goods, human and animal sacrifices\]

complex human societies; early dynastic period -Sumerian civilization

3000 - 2300 BC, 20 city-states each with their own temple and territory

complex human societies; why did state level societies develop

conflict models, integration models and many paths to complexity

complex human societies; archaeological identification of a state

by decision making hierarchy \[king in city, town govenor, village leader\], settlement pattern type hierarchy \[city, town, village, hamlet\], full time craft making, record keeping\]

complex human societies; record keeping

keep track of food surpluses, labor, reinforce legitimacy of rule of king or queen; control of history. ex, 16 shapes primarily found in public buildings for tracking food flowing into commercial shops controlled by elites

writing: cuneiform standard impressions on clay tablets \[first form of writing\], near east used cuneiform 3500 BC and hieroglyphics 3100 BCE, China 2300 BC, Maya glyphs 500 BCE

complex human societies; royal/ trade

elite for alliances and inter marry \[royalty\], trade route span to Syria, Iran, and Iraq

complex human societies; state in mesopotamia

harnessing of energy through irrigation, export of food in exchange for resources \[timber, precious metals\], mostly urban population composed of craft specialists and administrators

complex human societies; nature and distribution of power

elite: kings, priests, nobles

middle class: merchants, artisans, scribes

peasantry: farmers

state religion draws symbols of power

complex human societies; classic period Mesoamerica

Zapotec \[Oaxaca\] 2500 - 1300 BP, Teotihuacan \[basin of Mexico\] 1900 - 1250 BP, Maya \[Peten\] 1750 - 1100 BP

classic Maya 1800 - 1200 BP; lowlands heavily populated 3 000 000 people with 40 city-states distributed widely across 40 000m2; city-states were autonomous and ruled by great leaders \[king or queen\], warfare between city-states but also trade and inter-marriage