Inorganic Chemistry & General Principles - Review Flashcards

Comprehensive question-and-answer flashcards based on general and inorganic chemistry lecture notes covering atomic structure, periodic trends, chemical bonding, stoichiometry, redox reactions, gas laws, phase changes, and acid-base theories.

What is the definition of chemistry?

Chemistry is the study of matter—its composition, properties, and transformations (the changes it undergoes and the accompanying energy changes).

Which branch of chemistry focuses on the study of hydrocarbons and their derivatives?

Organic chemistry.

What is the primary focus of analytical chemistry?

The detection and identification of substances present (qualitative analysis) or determining the amount of each substance present (quantitative analysis).

What is the difference between mass and volume?

Mass is a measure of the quantity of matter, whereas volume is the measure of the amount of space that matter occupies.

How do exothermic and endothermic energy changes differ?

An exothermic process releases heat, whereas an endothermic process absorbs heat.

What are the defining physical characteristics of a solid?

A solid has a definite volume and rigid shape independent of its container, with particles packed close together in an orderly, regular three-dimensional array.

How do liquids and gases differ in terms of shape and volume?

A liquid has a definite volume and takes the shape of its container, while a gas has no definite shape or volume and expands to fill its container.

What defines an extensive property of matter, and what are two examples?

An extensive property depends on the amount of substance present; examples include mass and volume.

What defines an intensive property of matter, and what are two examples?

An intensive property is independent of the amount of substance present; examples include density and electrical conductivity.

How does a physical change differ from a chemical change?

A physical change alters the material without changing its composition, while a chemical change converts one substance into another by undergoing a change in composition.

What is the distinction between a homogeneous mixture and a heterogeneous mixture?

A homogeneous mixture (solution) is uniform throughout and consists of a single phase, whereas a heterogeneous mixture (suspension) is not uniform throughout and contains multiple distinguishable phases.

How does an element differ from a compound?

An element consists of only one kind of atom and cannot be broken down by chemical changes, whereas a compound is formed by chemically joining two or more elements and can be decomposed into simpler substances.

What are the location, charge, and mass (in amu) of the three subatomic particles?

Protons (charge $+1$, mass $1\,\text{amu}$) and neutrons (charge $0$, mass $1\,\text{amu}$) are located in the nucleus, while electrons (charge $-1$, mass negligible) are located in the electron cloud.

How are atomic number ($Z$) and mass number ($A$) defined?

Atomic number ($Z$) is the number of protons in the nucleus, and mass number ($A$) is the total sum of protons and neutrons in the nucleus.

What are isotopes?

Isotopes are atoms of the same element that contain the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons (and thus different mass numbers).

How many protons, electrons, and neutrons are present in a neutral ${}_{17}^{35}\text{Cl}$ atom?

It contains $17$ protons, $17$ electrons, and $18$ neutrons ($35 - 17 = 18$).

What is the maximum number of electrons that can occupy principal energy levels $n = 1, 2, 3,$ and $4$?

Level $1$ holds a maximum of $2$ electrons, level $2$ holds $8$, level $3$ holds $18$, and level $4$ holds $32$ electrons.

How many orbitals and maximum electrons are present in $s, p, d,$ and $f$ subshells?

An $s$ subshell has $1$ orbital ($2$ electrons), $p$ has $3$ orbitals ($6$ electrons), $d$ has $5$ orbitals ($10$ electrons), and $f$ has $7$ orbitals ($14$ electrons).

What are the characteristic shapes of $s, p, d,$ and $f$ orbitals?

An $s$ orbital is spherical ($l=0$), a $p$ orbital is dumb-bell shaped ($l=1$), a $d$ orbital is clover leaf shaped ($l=2$), and an $f$ orbital is complex ($l=3$).

What does the Pauli Exclusion Principle state?

It states that no more than two electrons can occupy each orbital, and if two electrons are present, they must have opposite spins.

What is the Aufbau principle?

It states that electrons fill orbitals in order of increasing energy, beginning with the lowest energy orbital ($1s$).

What are valence electrons and why are they important?

Valence electrons are the electrons located in the outermost shell (highest principal energy level $n$); they determine the chemical properties and reactivity of an element.

What are the periodic trends for atomic radius across a row and down a column?

Atomic radius decreases across a row (left to right) as the increasing nuclear charge pulls electrons closer, and increases down a column (top to bottom) as valence electrons occupy higher energy levels.

What are the periodic trends for ionization energy and electronegativity?

Both ionization energy and electronegativity increase across a row (towards the upper right corner) and decrease down a column.

Which element is the most electronegative on the periodic table?

Fluorine ($\text{F}$).

How do ionic bonds and covalent bonds differ in formation and element types involved?

Ionic bonds form by the transfer of electrons between a metal and a nonmetal, whereas covalent bonds form by the sharing of electrons between two nonmetals (or a nonmetal and a metalloid).

How are binary covalent compounds named using prefixes?

Name the first nonmetal by its element name, name the second using the suffix '-ide', and add Greek prefixes (mono-, di-, tri-, etc.) to indicate the number of atoms (omitting 'mono-' for the first element).

What is Avogadro's number, and what amount of substance does one mole represent?

Avogadro's number is $6.02 \times 10^{23}$, which represents the number of items (atoms, molecules, or ions) present in $1\,\text{mole}$ of a substance.

What is the formula weight of $\text{FeSO}_4$ given atomic weights $\text{Fe} = 55.85\,\text{amu}$, $\text{S} = 32.07\,\text{amu}$, and $\text{O} = 16.00\,\text{amu}$?

$151.92\,\text{amu}$ ($55.85 + 32.07 + 4 \times 16.00 = 151.92\,\text{amu}$).

How are oxidation and reduction defined in terms of electron transfer and valence change?

Oxidation involves a loss of electrons and an increase in valence (oxidation state), while reduction involves a gain of electrons and a decrease in valence (oxidation state).

In a redox reaction, what is the role of a reducing agent?

A reducing agent causes another compound to be reduced by donating electrons, and in the process, it becomes oxidized itself.

What are the standard conditions of temperature and pressure (STP), and what is the standard molar volume of a gas at STP?

STP conditions are $1\,\text{atm}$ ($760\,\text{mm\,Hg}$) pressure and $273\,\text{K}$ ($0\,^\circ\text{C}$) temperature; at STP, $1\,\text{mole}$ of any gas occupies $22.4\,\text{L}$.

What is Boyle's Law and its mathematical formula?

Boyle's Law states that for a fixed amount of gas at constant temperature, pressure and volume are inversely related ($P_1V_1 = P_2V_2$).

What is Charles' Law and its mathematical formula?

Charles' Law states that for a fixed amount of gas at constant pressure, volume is directly proportional to its Kelvin temperature ($\frac{V_1}{T_1} = \frac{V_2}{T_2}$).

What conversion values equate $1\,\text{atm}$ of pressure to other common pressure units?

$1\,\text{atm} = 760\,\text{mm\,Hg} = 760\,\text{torr} = 14.7\,\text{psi} = 101,325\,\text{Pa}$.

How do intermolecular forces affect the vapor pressure and viscosity of a liquid?

Stronger intermolecular forces lead to lower vapor pressure at a given temperature, but result in higher viscosity and surface tension.

What are the four types of crystalline solids and their particle components?

Ionic (oppositely charged ions, e.g., $\text{NaCl}$), Molecular (regularly arranged molecules, e.g., $\text{H}_2\text{O}$), Network (vast number of covalently bonded atoms, e.g., $\text{SiO}_2$), and Metallic (lattice of metal cations in a cloud of free electrons, e.g., $\text{Cu}$).

How do heat of fusion and heat of vaporization differ?

Heat of fusion is the energy required to melt $1\,\text{g}$ of a solid substance into liquid, whereas heat of vaporization is the energy required to vaporize $1\,\text{g}$ of a liquid substance into gas.

How do Arrhenius acids and bases differ from Brønsted–Lowry acids and bases?

Arrhenius acids contain hydrogen and produce $\text{H}^+$ in water, while Arrhenius bases contain hydroxide and produce $\text{OH}^-$. Brønsted–Lowry acids are proton ($\text{H}^+$) donors, while Brønsted–Lowry bases are proton ($\text{H}^+$) acceptors.

What structural feature is essential for a molecule or ion to act as a Brønsted–Lowry base?

It must contain at least one lone pair of electrons to accept a proton ($\text{H}^+$) and form a new bond.

How are Brønsted–Lowry acids classified based on the number of acidic protons donated?

Monoprotic acids donate $1$ proton (e.g., $\text{HCl}$), diprotic acids donate $2$ protons (e.g., $\text{H}_2\text{SO}_4$), and triprotic acids donate $3$ protons (e.g., $\text{H}_3\text{PO}_4$).

What are the general group names and common valences for Group 1A, Group 2A, and Group 7A elements?

Group 1A are Alkali metals (univalent, $+1$), Group 2A are Alkaline earth elements (bivalent, $+2$), and Group 7A are Halogens (univalent, $-1$).

Which metals belong to Group 1B (Coinage metals), and what is their relative ranking for electrical conductivity?

Copper ($\text{Cu}$), Silver ($\text{Ag}$), and Gold ($\text{Au}$); Silver ($\text{Ag}$) is 1st, Copper ($\text{Cu}$) is 2nd, and Gold ($\text{Au}$) is 3rd in electrical conductivity.

What is the oligodynamic effect exhibited by Coinage metals?

The oligodynamic effect is the toxic or antimicrobial effect exerted by small amounts of heavy metals on microbes.