AP Biology ALL UNITS AP Exam Review

Carbohydrate Examples

glucose, fructose, sucrose, starch, glycogen, cellulose, monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides

Disaccharide

A double sugar, consisting of two monosaccharides joined by dehydration synthesis.

Monosaccharide

A single sugar molecule such as glucose or fructose, the simplest type of sugar.

Polysaccharide

Carbohydrates that are made up of more than two monosaccharides

Glycosidic Linkage

A covalent bond formed between two monosaccharides by a dehydration reaction.

Starch

A storage polysaccharide in plants consisting entirely of glucose.

Cellulose

A substance (made of sugars) that is common in the cell walls of many organisms

Lipid Examples

fatty acids, fats, saturated fats, unsaturated fats, steroids, phospholipids, cholesterol, triglycerides

Unsaturated Fat

A lipid made from fatty acids that have at least one double bond between carbon atoms.

Saturated Fat

A lipid made from fatty acids that have no double bonds between carbon atoms

Steroid

lipid molecule with four fused carbon rings

Phospholipid

a lipid that contains phosphorus and that is a structural component in cell membranes

Nucleotide

monomer of nucleic acids made up of a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base

Nucleic Acid Examples

DNA, RNA, (ATP and ADP are modified nucleic acids)

Protein Examples

amino acids, primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary structures, collagen, hemoglobin, enzymes

Triglyceride

a lipid made of three fatty acid molecules and one glycerol molecule

Amino Acid Examples

glutamine, proline, cysteine, lycine, ...

Primary Structure of a Protein

sequence of amino acids

Secondary Structure of a Protein

protein structure is formed by folding and twisting of amino acid chain

Tertiary Structure of a Protein

protein structure is formed when the twists and folds of the secondary structure fold again to from a larger 3D structure

Quaternary Structure of a Protein

protein structure is a protein consisting of more than one folded amino acid chain

Disulfide Bridge

The covalent bond between two sulfur atoms (-S—S-) linking two molecules or remote parts of the same molecule.

Hydrogen Bonds

Very weak bonds; occurs when a hydrogen atom in one molecule is attracted to the electrostatic atom in another molecule

nucleic acid

kind of macromolecule that stores, transfers, and expresses genetic information

Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Phosphorus, Nitrogen (CHOPN)

elements that make up a nucleic acid

nucleotide

monomer of nucleic acids made up of a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base

double helix

term used to describe the arrangement of a DNA strand

RNA

ribonucleic acid; a polymer of nucleotides that transfers genetic information

how RNA differs from DNA

the sugar in RNA is ribose; Uracil bonds with Adenine; RNA is single-stranded

Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen (CHON)

elements that make up a protein

amino acid

building block (monomer) of proteins, composed of an amino group and a carboxyl group, a hydrogen atom, and an R-group

structure of an amino acid

a carboxyl group, an amino group, a central Carbon, a Hydrogen, and an R-group

peptide bond

covalent bond formed between amino acids

polypeptide chain

a long line of amino acids bonded together by peptide bonds

R-group

stands for the rest of the compound, different for each kind of amino acid, giving the amino acid its properties

properties the R-group may give the amino acid

hydrophilic or hydrophobic, polar or nonpolar, acidic or basic

four levels of a proteins structure

primary structure, secondary structure, tertiary structure, quaternary structure

hydrophobic R-groups

move together to the interior of a protein, away from water

lipids

macromolecule made of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen (CHO) that is mostly nonpolar not soluble in water;

Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen (CHO)

elements that makeup both Carbohydrates and Lipids

fatty acid

building block of a lipid made of a hydrocarbon chain and a carboxyl group

glycerol

a carbon alcohol that is hydrophilic

functions of lipids

long-term energy storage, insulation, part of the cell membrane, chemical messenger, waterproofing

phospholipid

lipid made of two hydrocarbon chains, glycerol, and a phosphate group

hydrophobic tail

another name for the hydrocarbon chain in a phospholipid

hydrophobic head

another name for the phosphate group in a phospholipid

-ose

suffix carbohydrates usually end in (gluc-ose, fruct-ose)

glycosidic linkage

covalent bond that forms between a monosaccharide and another molecule (like another monosaccharide)

macromolecules

large organic molecules

four

number of covalent bonds carbon can form with other elements

hydrocarbons

carbon and hydrogen atoms that are covalently bonded that make them stable and nonpolar

nonpolar

No partial charges. Not soluble in water

polar

Has partial charges. Soluble in water

polymer

molecules that consist of many repeated monomers

monomer

molecules that consist of a single unit

dehydration synthesis

reaction that links monomer molecules together, releasing a molecule of water for each bond formed

hydrolysis

the process of adding a water molecule to break a polymer into monomers

functional groups

parts of organic molecules that are involved in chemical reactions

charge of the oxygen atom in a water molecule

slightly negative

charge of the hydrogen atoms in a water molecule

slightly positive

hydrophilic

Term for substances that dissolve in water.

hydrophobic

Term for substances that do not dissolve in water.

high specific heat

property of water in which water changes temperature very slowly with changes in heat due to hydrogen bonding

evaporative cooling

water carries the heat it absorbs away in sweat due to its high specific heat

the reason ice floats in liquid water

less dense as a solid; hydrogen bonds form crystalline structure that keeps the water molecules separate

cohesion

the attraction of like substances; water molecules are attracted to other water molecules; this is due to the hydrogen bonding between water molecules

adhesion

the attraction of unlike molecules; water molecules are attracted to other polar surfaces

atom

Smallest form of an element that still displays its particular properties; consisting of a positively charged nucleus and a negatively charged electron cloud.

protons

Atomic particles with a positive charge (+) found in the nucleus of an atom.

neutrons

Atomic particles with a neutral (o) charge found in the nucleus of an atom.

electrons

Atomic particles with a negative charge (-) found outside the nucleus of an atom.

ion

atom becomes charged when it gains or loses an electron

chemical bond

attraction between two atoms by transferring or sharing electrons to attain a stable electron configuration

nonpolar covalent bond

Bond that forms when electrons are shared equally.

covalent bond

Bond that forms when electrons between atoms are shared.

polar covalent bond

Bond that forms when electrons are shared unequally; like that between the oxygen atom and hydrogen atoms in a water molecule

heredity

transmission of traits from one generation to the next

somatic cells

all cells besides gametes

asexual reproduction

single individual is the sole parent and passes copies of its genes to offspring

gene

hereditary unit

variation

any difference between individuals of the same species

sexual reproduction

two parents give rise to offspring that have unique combinations of genes

gametes

cells that transmit genes from one generation to the next

meiosis

cell division that results in haploid gametes (sperm and egg)

haploid cells

cells with single sets of chromosomes (n)

diploid cells

cells with two sets of chromosomes (2n)

homologous chromosomes

pair of chromosomes that are the same size, same appearance and have the same genes

meiosis I

cell division in which a diploid cell with duplicated chromosomes becomes haploid cells with duplicated chromosomes

meiosis II

cell division in which haploid cells with duplicated chromosomes become haploid cells with unduplicated chromosomes

independent assortment

each pair of homologous chromosomes in metaphase I sorts its maternal and paternal homologs independently of every other pair

crossing over

process in which DNA molecules of nonsister chromatids are broken and rejoined to each other

recombinant chromosomes

individual chromosomes that carry genes from two different parents

genetics

study of heredity and inherited variation

character

heritable feature that varies among individuals

trait

variant for a character

P generation

parental generation, the first two individuals that mate in a genetic cross

true-breeding

term used to describe organisms that produce offspring identical to themselves if allowed to self-pollinate

F1 generation

the first generation of offspring obtained from an experimental cross of two organisms

F2 generation

offspring of the F1 generation

allele

alternative version of a gene