AP Biology Final Trimester 1

Polar Nature

Water has partial positive and negative charges.

Hydrogen Bonding

Attraction between hydrogen and oxygen atoms in water.

Cohesion

Attraction between molecules of the same substance.

Adhesion

Attraction between water molecules and different substances.

Surface Tension

Cohesive forces at water's surface create tension.

Specific Heat

Water absorbs heat before temperature changes significantly.

Solvent Properties

Water dissolves many ionic and polar substances.

Acids and Bases

Water can act as both acid and base.

pH Scale

Logarithmic scale from 0 (acidic) to 14 (basic).

Dehydration Synthesis

Formation of covalent bonds with loss of water.

Hydrolysis Reaction

Water added to break down complex molecules.

Ribose

Five

Deoxyribose

Five

Disaccharides

Formed from two monosaccharides, e.g., sucrose.

Polysaccharides

Long chains of monosaccharides, e.g., starch.

Complex Carbohydrates

Polysaccharides providing energy and structural support.

Triacylglycerol

Fat molecule for energy storage in animals.

Fatty Acids

Long hydrocarbon chains, saturated or unsaturated.

Phospholipids

Key components of cell membranes, forming bilayers.

Steroids

Lipids with four fused carbon rings, e.g., cholesterol.

Peptide Bond

Covalent bond linking two amino acids.

Peptides

Short chains of amino acids.

Polypeptides

Long chains of amino acids folding into proteins.

Protein Structure Levels

Primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures.

Nitrogenous Bases

Building blocks of nucleic acids, including purines and pyrimidines.

Double Helix Structure

DNA shape formed by two twisted nucleotide strands.

Antiparallel Orientation

Opposite direction of DNA strands for replication.

Central Dogma

Flow of genetic information: DNA to RNA to protein.

Central Dogma of Molecular Biology

Describes the flow of genetic information from DNA to RNA to protein, outlining the processes of replication, transcription, and translation.

Active transport

The movement of substances against their concentration gradient, requiring energy.

Aquaporin

A channel protein that facilitates the transport of water across the cell membrane.

Carrier protein

A transport protein that binds to a specific molecule and changes shape to shuttle it across the membrane.

Channel protein

A type of transport protein that forms a pore in the membrane to allow specific molecules to pass through.

Concentration Gradient

A difference in the concentration of a substance across a space.

Endocytosis

The process by which a cell takes in materials by engulfing them in a vesicle.

Exocytosis

The process by which a cell expels materials in vesicles that fuse with the plasma membrane.

Facilitated transport

A process of passive transport that uses transport proteins to move molecules across the membrane.

Fluid mosaic model

A model that describes the structure of cell membranes as a mosaic of various components.

Integral membrane protein

Proteins that are permanently attached to the biological membrane.

Lipid bilayer

A double layer of lipids that forms the basic structure of cell membranes.

Passive transport

The movement of substances across a cell membrane without the use of energy.

Peripheral protein

Proteins that are temporarily attached to the membrane and can be removed easily.

Primary active transport

A type of active transport that directly uses ATP to transport molecules.

Secondary transport

A type of active transport that uses the energy from the electrochemical gradient created by primary active transport.

Transmembrane protein

A type of integral protein that spans the entire membrane.

Transport protein

Proteins that assist in the movement of ions and molecules across the membrane.

Cell Wall

Rigid outer layer providing structure to plant cells.

Chloroplasts

Organelles in plants that conduct photosynthesis.

Compartmentalization

Division of cell functions into distinct organelles.

Cytoplasm

Gel

Cytoskeleton

Network of fibers providing structural support and shape.

Endomembrane System

Network of membranes involved in protein and lipid transport.

Endosymbiosis

Theory explaining origin of eukaryotic cells from prokaryotes.

Eukaryotes

Organisms with complex cells containing a nucleus.

Golgi apparatus

Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins for secretion.

Lysosomes

Organelles containing enzymes for digestion of waste.

Mitochondria

Powerhouse of the cell; produces ATP through respiration.

Nucleus

Membrane

Origin of eukaryotic cells

Eukaryotes evolved from symbiotic relationships among prokaryotes.

Prokaryotes

Single

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

Studded with ribosomes; synthesizes proteins.

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

Lacks ribosomes; synthesizes lipids and detoxifies.

Turgor Pressure

Pressure from fluid in vacuoles keeping cells firm.

Vacuole

Storage organelle; maintains turgor pressure in plants.

Vesicles

Small membrane

Activation Energy

The minimum energy required to initiate a chemical reaction.

Activator

A molecule that increases the activity of an enzyme.

Active site

The region of an enzyme where substrate molecules bind and undergo a chemical reaction.

Allosteric site

A site on an enzyme that is not the active site, where molecules can bind to regulate enzyme activity.

ATP synthase

An enzyme that creates ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate during photophosphorylation.

Calvin Cycle

A series of biochemical reactions that take place in the stroma of chloroplasts, using ATP and NADPH to convert carbon dioxide into glucose.

Catalyst

A substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without undergoing any permanent chemical change.

Denature

The process by which an enzyme loses its functional shape due to external stress or conditions, rendering it inactive.

Electron transport chain

A series of protein complexes and other molecules that transfer electrons from electron donors to electron acceptors via redox reactions.

Enzyme

A biological catalyst that accelerates chemical reactions in living organisms.

Inhibitor

A molecule that decreases the activity of an enzyme.

Light Reaction

The phase of photosynthesis where light energy is converted into chemical energy in the form of ATP and NADPH.

NADPH

A coenzyme that acts as a reducing agent in the biosynthetic reactions, providing the reducing power for the Calvin Cycle.

Oxidation

A chemical reaction that involves the loss of electrons or hydrogen, resulting in an increase in oxidation state.

Photophosphorylation

The process of converting ADP to ATP using the energy from light during the light reactions of photosynthesis.

Photosystem

A protein

Reduction

A chemical reaction that involves the gain of electrons or hydrogen, resulting in a decrease in oxidation state.

Stroma

The fluid

Substrate

The reactant molecule upon which an enzyme acts.

Transition state

The state during a chemical reaction in which the reactants are in the process of being converted to products.

Polar Nature - Water has partial positive and negative charges.

Hydrogen Bonding - Attraction between hydrogen and oxygen atoms in water.

Cohesion - Attraction between molecules of the same substance.

Adhesion - Attraction between water molecules and different substances.

Surface Tension - Cohesive forces at water's surface create tension.

Specific Heat - Water absorbs heat before temperature changes significantly.

Solvent Properties - Water dissolves many ionic and polar substances.

Acids and Bases - Water can act as both acid and base.

pH Scale - Logarithmic scale from 0 (acidic) to 14 (basic).

Dehydration Synthesis - Formation of covalent bonds with loss of water.

Hydrolysis Reaction - Water added to break down complex molecules.

Ribose - Five-carbon sugar in RNA structure.

Deoxyribose - Five-carbon sugar in DNA structure.

Disaccharides - Formed from two monosaccharides, e.g., sucrose.

Polysaccharides - Long chains of monosaccharides, e.g., starch.