psych final

hindsight bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it

overconfidence

the human tendency to think we know more than we do

perceiving order in random events

seeking patterns or meanings in something as an attempt to make sense of the world

theory

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events

operational definition

a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study

replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced

preregistration

publicly communicating planned study design, hypotheses, data collection, and analyses

meta-analysis

a statistical procedure for analyzing the results of multiple studies to reach an overall conclusion

case study

a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

naturalistic observatino

a descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

survey

a descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, *random sample* of the group

random sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

population

all those in a group being studied, from which random samples may be drawn

correlation

a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other

positive correlation

change together in the same direction

negative correlation

change together in opposite directions

correlation coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from −1.00 to +1.00).

variable

anything that can vary and is feasible and ethical to measure

scatterplot

a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables; the slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variable

illusory correlation

perceiving a relationship where none exists, or perceiving a stronger-than-actual relationship

regression toward the mean

the tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back (regress) toward the average.

double-blind procedure

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. (commonly used in drug-evaluation studies)

placebo effect

experimental results caused by expectations alone

confounding variable

in an experiment, a factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a study’s result

in a study, researchers

*design* each study, *measure* target behaviors, *interpret* results

informed consent

giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate

debriefing

the postexperimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants

mode

the most common level/number/score

standard deviation

how much do the scores deviate from the mean (small: don't deviate much, large: spread out from the mean)

normal curve

a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data - most scores fall near the mean

qualities to achieve reliability

non biased sampling (representative), consistency (responses, observations), and many data points

how to determine of a difference is significant?

could the result have been caused by random chance between the group? is your data reliable and the difference between the groups is large?

“atoms of the mind” are called

nerve cells

cell body

the cell’s life support center

dendrites

receive incoming messages form other cells

axons

send messages away to the next neuron, muscle, or gland

myelin sheath

covers (some) axon of some neurons and helps speed neural impulses, makes signals more likely to stay on track

terminal branches of axon

forms junctions with other cells

glial cells

support, nourish, and protect neurons and assist neural transmission

neural impulse is also called

action potenital

action potenial (neural impulse)

a neural impulse that travels from the cell body, down the axon, to the axon terminal branches

what happens during a neural impulse

positive ions flow into the axon → depolarization → electrical signal can be sent

resting potential

the mostly positively charged ions on the outside/ negative-inside state

excitatory and inhibitory are characteristics of what brain part

dendrites

excitatory behavior

dendrites fire signals or pass

inhibitory behavior

dendrites don’t fire signals

all-or-none behavior

if the excitatory signals outweigh inhibitory → it will fire (like a threshold, will trigger action potential)

the electro-chemical communication system

how neurons communicate using electrical impulse

what is the electrical part of the electro-chemical communication system

cell body→ axon terminal branches

what is the chemical part of the electro-chemical communication system

terminal branches → releases neurotransmitters → bridges synaptic gap → reaches receptor sites on receiving neuron

first step of neurons communicating

action potential travels down the axon from the cell body to the terminal branches

do terminal branches touch?

terminal branches DON’T need to be touching for the electrical signals to jump to the next one - there’s a gap between neurons: synaptic gap (synapse)

how do signals travel between neurons over the synapse?

the signal must find a way across the synaptic gap → chemical messengers called neurotransmitters

neurotransmitters

chemicals used to send a signal across the synapse

are receptor sites specific or non specific of chemical neurotransmitters

receptor sites are specific to specific chemical neurotransmitters

reuptake

when excess neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the sending neuron

agonist

unnatural molecules (artificial molecules that you ingest) that *fills* the receptor sits and *activates* it

antagonist

articial substance that blocks the receptor site, fills **but doesn't activate**

example of an antagonist

(antihistamine inhibits the action of histamine)

antagonists are close enough to

fill the receptor site but NOT ENOUGH to activate it

sensory neurons

carry messages IN from sense receptors (body’s tissues) INTO the nervous system, up to the brain (CNS) for processing

motor neurons

carry instructions OUT from the CNS to the body’s tissues

interneurons

(in brain and spinal cord) carry information between sensory and motor neurons, process information between the sensory input and motor output

the central nervous system (CNS) covers the

the brain and spinal cord

neuron network

work groups of neurons; interconnected neurons form with experience → learning occurs as experience strengthens connections

the spinal cord is full of

interneurons that operate reflexes

the peripheral nervous system (PNS) covers the

rest of the nervous system (excludes the brain and spinal cord)

what does the PNS do?

gathers and sends information to and from the rest of the body

autonomic PNS

controls self-regulated action of internal organs and glands

the sympathetic nervous system is really the

sympathetic automatic peripheral nervous system

examples of the sympathetic nervous system

arousing, fight or flight; more physical symptoms

parasympathetic nervous system is responsible for

calming, rest, and digest

somatic PNS

controls voluntary movements of skeletal muslces

parts of the autonomic PNS are the

automatic and somatic

the difference between the autonomic and somatic PNS are

autonomic is the self-regulating functions, and somatic controls voluntary movements

the endocrine system

refers to the set of glands that produce hormones (chemical messengers)

how do hormones travel through the body?

through the blood stream

the hypothalamus in the endocrine sysmte

is a part of the brain region that controls the pituitary gland

the pituitary gland

secrets many hormones which usually affects other glands (“master gland”)

thyroid gland

affects metabolism and other things

parathyroids

regulates the level of calcium in the blood

adrenal glands

inner part of helps trigger fight or flight by producing epinephrine, norepinephrine, and cortisol (stress hormones)

is the inside or outside parts of the brain newer?

the outside of the brain is newest in evolutionary terms

what is the limbic sysmte

the middle part of the brain; manages emotions and connects thoughts to body

the cortex

is the outer covering of the brain, integrates information

older structures of the brain are

less complex and coordinate the body

the medulla is

at the base of the brainstem; controls the most basic functions like heartbeat and breathing

the pons is

the brainstem crossover point, where most nerve switch from one side of the brain to the other side of the body, controls automatic and unconscious movements (walking on 2 legs), and controls sleep

the thalamus is

the top of the brain stem, takes information and sends it where it needs to go but doesn’t process it, sends it to the right part of the cortex

the cerebellum is

at the back of the head at the bottom, enables nonverbal learning and memory (ex. muscle memory), helps modulate emotions, and coordinates voluntary movement

the parts of the brainstem consist of the

medulla, pons, thalamus, reticular formation, and cerebellm

the parts of the limbic system consist of the

hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus

the hippocampus

processes conscious memories and works with the amygdala to form emotionally charged memories

the amygdala

proceesses emotions, the more primitive like rage and fear; intense and negative emotions

amygdala damage leads to

reduced arousal to fear and anger arousing stimuli, feel emotions less intensely

the hypothalamus

regulates body temperature, hunger, thirst, and sexual behavior, and is the master of the master gland: regulates the whole endocrine system via messages to the pituitary gland

the parts of the cerebral cortex consist of the

frontal lobes, parietal lobes, occipital lobes, and temporal lobes

the frontal lobes control the

inhibition of impulse, processing new memories, and planning, reasoning, and judgement

the parietal lobes manage

sensory input, touch, and make sense of messages from the thalamus

the occipital lobes

process visual information