Chapter 5 Contemporary Issues in Policing

What types of misconduct have police officers engaged in since the 1970s?

Taking bribes, extortion, falsification of evidence, domestic violence, theft, robbery, and murder.

What was the purpose of the Knapp Commission formed in 1972?

To investigate corruption in the New York City Police Department.

What are 'grass-eaters' in the context of police corruption?

Corrupt officers who accept small bribes during their shifts.

What are 'meat-eaters' in the context of police corruption?

A small percentage of corrupt officers who extort large payments from citizens.

What prompted the formation of the St. Clair Commission in 1992?

The police response to the murder of Carol Stewart, which involved harassment and arrests of innocent Black men.

What issues did the St. Clair Commission find in the Boston Police Department?

Patterns of poor training, flawed investigations, and failure to hold officers accountable for excessive force.

What are the consequences of police corruption when officers are not held accountable?

Increased misconduct, erosion of public trust, and potential harm to communities.

What is one major form of police misconduct involving financial gain?

Extortion.

What is a common behavior exhibited by police officers involved in misconduct?

Falsification of evidence.

How has police misconduct affected communities since the 1970s?

It has led to a loss of trust in law enforcement and increased tensions between police and communities.

What is a significant finding regarding police training from the St. Clair Commission?

The commission found patterns of poor training within the Boston Police Department.

What types of criminal behavior have police officers been involved in outside of their duties?

Domestic violence, theft, robbery, and murder.

What are the types of law enforcement agencies in the United States?

City police departments, university police departments, tribal police departments, sheriff's offices, state troopers, and federal agencies.

How many non-federal law enforcement agencies exist in the United States?

Approximately 18,000 agencies.

What is the most common size of a law enforcement agency?

10-24 officers.

Who is the highest-ranking officer in a city police department?

The chief of police.

How is the chief of police appointed?

By the mayor or city council.

What is the typical term length for a chief of police?

3-5 years.

What are the primary duties of patrol officers?

Monitor citizens' activities, respond to complaints, pursue suspects, direct traffic, enforce traffic laws, assist in crime scene processing, participate in raids and and sting undercover operations, search for missing individuals

Which officers have the most contact with the public?

patrol officers, they are the first responders to citizens’ calls for service

What is the role of investigators in law enforcement?

Investigate and solve crimes, contribute to prosecutions, work in specialized units, and conduct undercover operations against drug dealers, sex workers, and distibutors of child pornography

What are the specialized units of investigators?

homicide, robbery, vice, narcotics, cybercrime, sex crimes, organized crime

For how many years do police officers need to be a partol officer before promotion to investigator?

At least 2 years sometimes more

What are the street level officers?

patrol officers and investigators

Role of street level officers

conduct undercover operations against a vairety of offenders ex. drug dealers, sex workers and their clients, distributors of child pornography

What is the role of a lieutenant?

directly supervises investigators

What is the role of a sergeant?

directly supervises patrol officers or investigators

What are the basic qualifications required to become a police officer?

At least 18 years old, high school diploma, no felony record, and passing various tests.

What are the tests that police officers need to pass to become an officer?

physical fitness test, psychological evaluation, written and oral tests, polygraph test, drug test

What types of training do police officers undergo?

Police academy training (12-29 weeks) and field training by shadowing an experienced officers.

What is the police subculture?

hypermasculinity, secrecy, group solidarity, cynicism, and authoritarianism

What is community-oriented policing?

A philosophy emphasizing collaboration with community members to reduce crime and build trust.

What are some elements of community-oriented policing?

Fair treatment of victims, community meetings, crime prevention strategies, foot patrols, greater presence in schools

What is problem-oriented policing?

A strategy focusing on identifying specific crime problems and developing targeted solutions.

What is the broken windows theory in policing?

It attributes crime to neighborhood disorder, suggesting that visible signs of neglect encourage criminal behavior. “zero tolerance policing”

What was an effect of the broken windows theory?

Increased enforcement of minor crimes, people were more likely to be arrested for minor crimes to prevent serious crimes 

ex. graffiti, vandalism, and jaywalking

Who were the main targets of broken window policing?

disproportionately trageted minorities 

ex. “stop and frisk” in NYC

What is the Ferguson effect?

An increase in crime attributed to police inaction following the killing of Michael Brown, leading to hesitance in proactive policing.

Effects of the Ferguson effect

reduced officers morale and job satisfaction, however it was not found to directly affect violent and property crime rates overall

What is racial profiling?

Disproportionate targeting of African Americans by police during stops and questioning, often without just cause.

Are stops due to racial profiling accurate?

No, most people who are stopped are rarely engaging in criminal behavior

What technological advancement requires police officers to wear cameras?

Body-worn cameras.

What is ShotSpotter?

A gunshot detection system used to identify shootings not reported by citizens.

What do critics say about the ShotSpotter?

Tool leads to a waste of resources, it’s expensive, rarely results in an arrest, evidence from Chicago indicates that most ShotSpotter activations don’t lead to discovery of fire arm related crime

What role does social media play in modern policing?

Enhances communication with citizens, notifies the public about crimes, and improves departmental image.

What is the impact of female police officers in law enforcement?

Female officers are as competent as male counterparts, often de-escalate confrontations, reduce incidents of harassment, community-oriented policing is enchanced by a greater presence of female officers

What are some criticisms of hot-spot policing?

It may lead to crime displacement to nearby areas.

What is procedural justice in policing?

The principle of treating citizens fairly and with respect to enhance trust in law enforcement.

Benefit of procedural justice

Increases the likelihood that a citizen will be cooperative in future interactions with the police

What is implicit bias training?

Training aimed at addressing unconscious associations between race and crime among police officers.

What are the consequences of excessive use of force by police?

Incidents attract media attention and public outrage, especially in high-profile cases.

How many people do police officers shoot and kill each year in the U.S.?

Approximately 1,000 people.

What percentage of individuals shot by police were unarmed from 2015-2022?

6%.

What is the significance of the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994?

It increased the scope of community-oriented policing, established the Office of Community Oriented Policing Services, and provided funding

What is the relationship between police presence and crime rates in high-crime areas?

Increased police presence in hot spots can reduce crime without necessarily displacing it.

What are some technological advancements in polcing?

cameras, shotspotter, and social media

How many police officers are women?

less than 2%

What are crime hot-spots?

example of problem-oriented policing, area of a city in which more crime is reported, greater policing resources need to be devoted to these high crime areas

Benefit of hot-spot policing

Sherman and Rogan (1995) found that it reduced violent crime and did not cause displacement of crime to surrounding areas

Key factors of policing in the 21st century

Greater recognition of the importance of procedural justice, acknowledgement of implicit bias among police officers

How many African Americans are disproportinately targeted in fatal police shootings?

more than 20%

What are the roles of cameras in police departments?

In many police departments officers are obligated to wear body cameras during their shift, 80% of police departments

What is the purpose of body-worn cameras?

Intended to increase transparency and protect officers from false accusations of misconduct

Research on body worn cameras

research has produced mixed results overall