(3) SPORT PSYCH

arousal def

also referred to as activation.  This is nondirectional.  Can range from comatose to panic attack.  For our purposes, it is an energizing function

anxiety def

a negative emotional state or reaction that varies in intensity and varies over time. It is marked by unpleasantness, worry, uncertainty, & apprehension. It causes activation of the autonomic nervous system.

stress def

this can be either positive (eustress) or negative (distress). a challenge to the body’s homeostasis. anxiety is typically associated wit distress.

the ways to measure arousal:

1.       Physiological Measures: one should use multiple measures to assess physiological arousal due to “autonomic response stereotypy”.  Examples: EEG, GSR, HR, BP, EMG.

                What is AUTONOMIC RESPONSE STEREOTYPY?

2.       Biochemical Measures: the can be invasive and costly, plus they may vary depending on the “speed” of the hormone measured. Examples: E/NE, cortisol.

3.       Questionnaires: only 2 questionnaires are specifically designed to measure arousal -- AD-ACL and the SPQ.  Easier to use than above measures, but can be susceptible to behavioral artifacts(winning or personal performance).

4.       Anxiety Measures: Often misused in an attempt to study arousal.  Examples: STAI, SCAT, CSAI-2, SAS. (is a negative emotional state)

• drive theory of arousal

• what is the key?

• performance (P)=habit(H)*drive(D)

• increases in arousal should continue to enhance the probability of making the dominant response

• key; dominant responses are not always the correct responses

inverted-U hypothesis

• has helped sports psychology understand arousal

• moderate= best level for zone optimal functioning

• “ideal” curve is not a static model- it is dynamic. the curve can shift left or right. depending on complexity of task, and differences

• Yerkes and Dodson (1980)- foun

  d decrement in performance under increasing arousal. these findings occured earlier for complex tasks as opposed to later simpler tasks

• Yerkes and Dodson (1980)- found

• Yerkes and Dodson (1980)- foun

  d decrement in performance under increasing arousal. these findings occured earlier for complex tasks as opposed to later simpler tasks

the “ideal” curve

• “ideal” curve is not a static model- it is dynamic. the curve can shift left or right. depending on complexity of task, and differences

task characteristics and the inverted-U

• the complexity of the motor skill must be considered to determine optimal arousal

• depends on…

  * 1. decisions to be model (#, alternatives, speed, sequence)

  *2. perception/attentional needs (#of stimuli present and needed, duration of stimuli, intensity of stimuli, conflicting stimuli)

  *3. motor act itself (fine vs gross motor skill, # of muscles used, precision, etc)

the complexity of the motor skill must be considered to determine optimal arousal. what does it depend on?

1. decisions to be model (#, alternatives, speed, sequence)

*2. perception/attentional needs (#of stimuli present and needed, duration of stimuli, intensity of stimuli, conflicting stimuli)

*3. motor act itself (fine vs gross motor skill, # of muscles used, precision, etc)

individual differences and the inverted-U aspects;

• personality= perhaps the most important. high trait anxious vs low trait anxious; introvert vs extravert

• skill= with more experience, you may be able to handle greater arousal. high skill vs low skill.

• coping ability= some athletes simply know how to handle increased physiological arousal. all can be taught.

what also must we consider that acts primarly of performance by changing ones attention range?

arousal

Easterbrooks Cue Utilization Theory:

• as arousal goes up, attention is more on task-related cues (but, can be too focused and miss other important info)

The main with IZOF and arousal and anxiety;

Know where the optimal arousal zone is for each athlete and then teach them how to reproduce it for each competition

Importance of arousal regulation (list)

• arousal appears to have an influence on performance

• managing stress and arousal may reduce the risk of injury

• Managing arousal may prolong performance effectiveness over a longer time period

• Often, however, athletes need to regulate up rather than relax

Autonomic functions;

• functions that are regulated in by the autonomic nervous system- regulated without conscious effort

• people are able to control these functions with practice; brain waves, hr, breathing, blood pressure, and body temp

Danger of muscle tension

• arousal tends to increase muscle tension

• muscles become co-contracted (double pull or bracing) and performance can suffer and injuries may result

• - learning to use only the muscles required is called differential relaxation or relaxed exertion

• - a key mental skill is recognizing unwanted muscle tension

Sport relaxation research

• relaxation training programs have been shown to improve performance

• Little is known about different relaxation strategies

• One should keep in mind possible preferences for relaxation types (meditation or auto genic training)

• Very individualized!!!

Types of relaxation

1. muscle to mind techniques (breathing exercises, jacobson’s progressive muscle relaxation)

2. Mind to muscle technique- focus on efferent nerve control (bensons relaxation response, mediation, autogenic training)

   • both methods can be effective if athletes practice them…

   • The ultimate goal is momentary relaxation- relax on demand

Aspects of breathing exercises;

• found in almost every relaxation technique

• Diaphragmatic (stomach) breathing is important

• Anxious athletes often their breath or breathe too shallowly

• Taking a proper breath, by itself, can often trigger some relaxation

• 5% to 15% of individuals breathe “paradoxically” during relaxation exercises (extending diaphragm down while exhaling)

Progressive muscle relaxation

• assume that an anxious mind cannot exist in a relaxed body

• Teacher awareness and sensitivity to muscle tension

• The goal is to develop automatically- athletes unconsciously adjust muscle tension to more appropriate levels

• Called progressive muscle relaxation for 2 reasons- progress through different muscles and progress from higher levels of tension to lower levels

• (Tense all the body parts one at a time; tense relax, tense relax)

Meditation

• can teach relaxation and concentration skills

• Often uses a mantra- non-stimulating, meaningless, rhythmic sound (ohm)

• Passive attitude is important

VARIATIONS

1. Breathing meditation

2. Visual(image)meditation(internal)

3. External image meditation n(eyes open)

4. Meditation on a sound (shine of bell)

5. Awareness meditation

The relaxation response

Consists of a generalized version of eastern and western meditative/relaxation procedures

Uses a mental device (or cue)(relax;breath)

STEPS

1. Sit quietly

2. Close your eyes

3. Deeply relax all muscles from feet to face

4. Breathe through nose - think mental device to self as you exhale

5. Practice for 10-20 mins

6. Take a passive attitude

what does relaxation response that Benson’s talks about say?

can control autonomic responses with our mind

(the people who could control body temp, etc with just their mind)

effectiveness of visualization and aspects

• effective visualization can change arousal levels (go to your “happy” place

• watch for the “traps” images that may trigger unpleasant memories

• be aware that imagery ability differs for each individual

(3)variations with visualization

1. cue image relaxation

2. guided imagery (hockey player)

3. systemic desensitization (consists of pairing images and relaxation)

steps in visualizations

1. relaxation

2. constructing an anxiety heirarchy

3. pairing relaxation with the situation described in your anxiety heirarchy (through imagery)

sample hierarchy

(fear of playing in front of large crowds/evaluation anxiety) practicing, reviewing, imagery, going through motions (in mind or physical)

autogenic training

• a self hypothesis techniques that produces sensations of warmth and heaviness

• proficiency may take months of training

(by repeating verbal formulates)

increasing activation

• often just as important

• tied into awareness- where do i need to be to perform well

• tied into motivation and goals, but strategies to increase activation include;

  • breathing

  • imagery

  • verbal cues

  • environment

  • distraction

  • music

  • using emotion effectively

  • drawing on the crowd

Raiports increasing energy technique

→ combo of breathing and imagery breathe out during first phase

(example; breathing, imagery,alert, quivering)

imagery def

• using ALL the senses to re-create or create an experience in the mind (not just visualization)

• the ability to envision oneself succeeding appears to be very important in sport (and life)

• images in sport- however, can both help and hinder performance- one must learn to use them apparently

uses for imagery:

1. enhancing physical skills

2. problem solving

3. arousal control

4. stress management

5. goal setting

6. self-confidence

7. attentional focusing

8. injury recovery

3 things to use imagery for video:

1. what you think about before a game must be positive and productive

2. vivid; experience all senses (5)

3. control the images

three keys to understanding imagery:

• imagery as re-creating or creating

  • imagery is tied to memory

• imagery as polysensory- not just seeing (all the senses)

• imagery is a mental training tool

  • must be trained and practiced to be effective

research on imagery effectiveness (2);

1. improving skill learning and performance

   a. mental practice or imaging rehearsal

   b. preparatory imagery

   c. imagery as an element in multi-model training programs

2. changing thoughts and emotions

   a. self-confidence (remember self-efficacy/motivation theory)

   b. motivation

   c. control anxiety

stats on imagery use;

• about 99% of Canadian Olympic Athletes reported imagery use in one study

• in training- once a day, 4 days/week, about 12 mins

• in competition- up to 2-3 hours a day prior to event

individual who use imagery have been shown to do what?

• set higher goals

• practice more

4 theories of imagery;

1. psychoneuromuscular theory

   • similar impulses occur in brain and muscles when athletes imagine themselves performing a motor skill

   • ex. Yue and Coe (psychoneuromuscular and imagery testing)

     • physical, imagery, control group (the pinkies)

     • 4 week, 5 sessions/week

2. symbolic learning theory

   • imagery helps to encode sequencing and spatial elements that are important in a given task (walking into our seat everyday)

   • Decety and Colleagues

     • imagined and actual walking to targets 5, 10, 15 meters

     • subjects turned on stopwatch when starting to walk off when stopping walking (or imagining walking)

   • Kosslyn- experiments in which subjects are asked to study a map of locations, and to form an image of the map

     • they are asked to memorize map and think about where a point of it was

     • time and sequence

3. bioinformational theory

   -proposes that we encode images in different ways in long-term memory

   (a) stimulus propositions- basic content imagery

   (b) response propositions- behavioral response imagery

   ( c) benefit of imagery is tied into associating stimulus and response propositions in LTM

4. attentional arousal set theory

   • imagery helps to influence attention and/or arousal levels

   • Decety and colleagues

     → participants engaged in imagined walking/running on a treadmill at different intensities (physically and in their mind)

Decety and colleagues findings;

• imagined and actual walking to targets 5, 10, 15 meters

• subjects turned on stopwatch when starting to walk off when stopping walking (or imagining walking)

Yue and Coe finding;

• Yue and Coe (psychoneuromuscular and imagery testing)

  • physical, imagery, control group (the pinkies)

  • 4 week, 5 sessions/week

Kosslyn findings;

• experiments in which subjects are asked to study a map of locations, and to form an image of the map

  • they are asked to memorize map and think about where a point of it was

  • time and sequence

considerations with imagery;

• imagery perspective

• internal vs external

  → internal is best

• relative amount of imagery rehearsal and physical practice

  → more PP is better (although IR works still)

• skill level

  → experienced slightly more benefit

• imagery ability

  → skilled images

setting up an imagery program

1. consider how to introduce imagery to athletes

   • show revelance

   • brief expectation of how

2. evaluate imagery ability

3. implement basic training

   • controlability and vividness

   • self-awareness

   • sensory development

4. implement a systematic program

BUT, everybody is different

times for imagery

• daily practice-before, during, or offer practice

• pre-performance and pre-game routines

• post-performance review- could be combined with an evaluation sheet to help build awareness and task performance habits

building confidence and enhancing performance:

→ thoughts affect feelings and feelings affect behavior

• the mind must be trained to think effectively

• confidence is the result of particular

  -confident athletes are characterized by:

  (positive self talk, images, dreams)

self-efficacy def

belief that one can successfully execute the behavior required for desined outcome; situation-specific self-confidence (situational dependent)

confidence def

a state of assurance; a belief in one’s abilities; healthy arrogrance (global term)

optimism def

a tendency to expect the best possible outcome or dwell on the most hopeful aspects of a situation

mental toughness def

the natural or developed psychological edge enables you to cope better that competition with the demands of performance, and to remain determined, focused, confident, and in control

misconceptions about confidence:

1. either you have confidence, or you don’t

2. only pos. feedback can build confidence (could be correction from coach)

3. success always builds confidence

4. confidence equals outspoken arrogance

5. mistakes inevitably destroy confidence

prerequisites for gaining confidence:

1. understand the interaction of thought and performance (may need to change thinking)

2. cultivate honest self-awareness- you need to recognise negative thoughts in order to fix them

3. develop an optimistic explanatory style

optimistic explanatory style (the three P’s)

• permanance=how much you believe events will repreat themselves

  • opt=”it will work out/good things can happen again”

  • pess=”i never ___”

• pervasiveness= how much you believe events will generalize to other situations

  • opt “this good thing happens so the day with be good”

  • pess “bad thing happens so bad day”

• personalization=how much you see yourself as the primary cause for events

  • opt “i am the cause of good things more often than not”

  • pess “feels like don’t have control, and bad things always happen OR i am not the cause of good things”

psychology of excellence list:

1. go for your dreams

2. focus on your success

3. be own best friend/supporter, etc (what would a great coach say to you)→ listen to yourself, who is always with you

4. create your own realities

pessimistic style; general impacts

• increased depressed affect

• reduced achievement

• compromised immune and physical function

• reduced quality of life/happiness

sports studies: explanatory style

• teams do appear to have a “explanatory style”

  • this style appears to predict performance beyond how “good” the team is

• style appears to predicts performance under pressure

• explanatory style is difficult to observe and judge (because it is so internal. may not say the truth about what they say")

self-talk def

the internal (sometimes out-loud) dialogue we have with ourselves. may be pos, neg, or neutral

uses for self tlak

• skill aquisition

  • instruction early, outcome later

• changing bad habits

  • focus on what you want to and trying to do, not what you are trying to change

• atttention control

  • self-talk can keep you focused on the present…

• creating affect or mood

  • “explode” or “smooth”

top 3 effects/use of self-talk

1. changining affect/mood

   • use to psych-up, calm down, or reinterpret

2. controlling effect

   • stay with it

   • keep this pace

   • your’re looking good!

3. building self-efficacy

   • useful form of verbal persuasion/reminder of past performance accomplishments may be very useful in recovery from injury

identifying self-talk

• to effectively use or change self-talk…athletes must be aware of their self-talk

• gain awareness

how can we gain awareness by:

• retrospection (look back at past performance)

• imagery

• self-talk log book

• identify “typical” negative thoughts

examples of irrational self-talk

1. perfection is essential

2. catastrophizing (“the whole world will end if this doesn’t happen”)

3. worth depends on achievement

4. personalization (“every thing is my fault”)

5. fallacy of fairness and ideal conditions

6. blaming (“everything is everyone else’s fault”)

7. polarized thinking (all-or nothing)

8. one-trial generalizations (failed, so i won’t try again)

technques for controlling/changing self-talk (include first step)

• must be aware first…

  • thought stoppage- can be mental or physical cues

  • change negative to pos- be able to couple pos thoughts to neg ones so that attention can be redirected

  • countering- facts or reason to refute illogical thought (usually lead by “i never…”)

  • reframing- create alternative frames of reference; a neg into a pos (Dunn or Sanders)

• construct affirmation statements;

  • statements about what you want phrased as if you already had it (believable, vivid, present tense)

  • “im good enough”

  • “i feel strong and best”

  • “im the best putter in the world”

what phrase helped Dr. Meyer (in swimming)

JET FUEL

other techniques for enhancing confidence and self-talk

1. self-esteem list- all of your positive attribute

2. success list- all of your accomplishments

3. design coping and mastery recordings

   • coping recording; describe overcoming an error or obstacle

   • master recording; describe your ideal performance and how it would feel

4. use video

   • watch a successful play over and over and recall the feelings that went with it

self handicapping, examples, and the two kind

= obstacles to successful performance constructed by an individual to enhance self-esteem

• failure can be discounted

• success is augmented

• saying “i wont do well” to protect ego in case it doesn’t go well

1. behavioral self-handicapping

   • set yourself up to do bad to have excuse through behavior

2. self reported handicapping

   • we say we cant do something

clinical issues with referrals

• athletes with problematic personal issues should be referred to appropriate person (psychiatrist or psychologist)

• when determining whether an athlete needs to be referred, consider:

  • duration of the problem

  • unusual emotional reactions (know the warning signs)

  • whether psychological skills are having any effect

  • any comments about personal harm or harm to others

• develop relationships with professionals that you can use for referral

  • show support

  • follow up

when determining whether an athlete needs to be referred, consider:

• duration of the problem

• unusual emotional reactions (know the warning signs)

• whether psychological skills are having any effect

• any comments about personal harm or harm to others

psychological skills training can create probems:

• sometimes the treatment itself can cause problems

  • relaxation can cause anxiety

• poor athlete-sport psychologist relationships can cause psychological skills training to be uncomfortable

• interventions may loosen conscious control-bring unconscious problems to the surface

OTHER psychological skills training can create problems:

• identify crisis or negative identity

• issues pertaining to homophobia

• high-risk sexual behavior

• anger management

• relationship issues

• eating disorder

• alcohol and drug abuse

• depression

athlete body morphs; male vs female

• body morphs for males and females for fatness and muscularity

  → typical results are similar; ideal bodies for fatness and muscularity for males; women tend to choose skinnier while men tend to choose larger

dealing with eating disorders correctly;

• be supportive

• get help from a specialist

• emphasize long-term nutrition

• express concern in general

• provide info about eating disorders

indications about alcohol abuse

• chronic use or binge

• center life around use

• personality change during use

• use interferes with other life events

• regretting things done or said when under influence

• feeling depressed after use

• failing to honor pledges to use less

• using to alleviate depression or anxiety

• avoiding family or friends when drinking

why athletes may fall into alcohol abuse

1. celebrations

2. failures

3. peer pressure

4. on vs off season

5. celebrity status/buy them a drink

6. feel like they can do whatever to their bodies and still train

depression def

a common mental disorder marked by

→ depressed mood, loss of interest or pleasure, feelings of guilt or low self-worth, disturbed sleep or appetite, low energy, and poor concentration

→ these problems can become chronic or recurrent. can lead to substancial impairments in an individuals ability to take care of his or her everyday responsibilities

• seasonal depression

warning signs for depression

• persistent depression, sad, anxious, empty mood

• sleep disturbances

• memory loss

• difficult making decision

• unhealthy increase or decrease in appetite

• etc.

  → these signs last 2 weeks or more (then refer to psychologist/doctor and report any signs of suicide or self-harm).

about what percent of athletes with severe injury will suffer minor to mild depression?

~47%

doping def

administering or use of substances in any form alien to the body or of physiological substances in abnormal amounts and with abnormal methods by healthy persons with the exclusive aim of attaining on artificial and unfair increase of performance in competition

5 doping categories (IOC)

• anabolic steroids, pepetides hormones, and analogues (builds up)

• stimulants (amphetamines)

• narcotic analgesics (pain killers)

• beta-adrenergic blockers

• diuretics

other performance enhancing substances

• depressants

• blood doping/EPO

• growth hormone

(physical, behavioral, emotional, cognititve signs)