Comprehensive Psychology: Classical & Operant Conditioning, Memory, and Learning Processes

What is learning?

The process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors through experience.

What is habituation?

The process of adapting to unchanging (repeated) stimuli.

What do behaviorists believe about knowledge?

Knowledge is learned and must be studied through observable behavior.

What is classical conditioning?

Learning by associating environmental stimuli with behavioral responses, recognizing that one event predicts another.

Who is associated with classical conditioning?

Ivan Pavlov.

What is the unconditioned stimulus (US) in Pavlov's experiment?

Meat powder, which naturally causes salivation.

What is the unconditioned response (UR) in Pavlov's experiment?

Salivation in response to meat powder.

What is the neutral stimulus in Pavlov's experiment?

A tone that initially does not elicit salivation.

What happens during the learning phase of classical conditioning?

The unconditioned stimulus is repeatedly paired with the neutral stimulus.

What is the conditioned stimulus (CS) after learning?

The tone that now elicits salivation.

What is the conditioned response (CR) after learning?

Salivation in response to the tone.

What is acquisition in classical conditioning?

The learning of the classically conditioned stimulus-response relationship.

What is extinction in classical conditioning?

The gradual diminishing of a conditioned response.

What is spontaneous recovery?

The reappearance of a weakened conditioned response after a pause.

What is stimulus generalization?

The conditioned response to stimuli that are similar to the original conditioned stimulus.

What is stimulus discrimination?

The learned ability to respond differently to stimuli that differ from the conditioned stimulus.

What is higher-order conditioning?

When a neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus through repeated pairing with an existing conditioned stimulus.

Who applied classical conditioning principles to humans?

John B. Watson.

What is systematic desensitization?

A progressive technique designed to replace anxiety with relaxation.

What is aversive conditioning?

Associating an unpleasant state with unwanted behavior.

What is preparedness in learning?

The biological predisposition to learn associations that have survival value.

What are taste aversions?

Classically conditioned negative reactions to a particular taste associated with illness. (dislike of a food due to illness after eating it)

What is operant conditioning?

Learning by associating a voluntary behavior with its consequences.

What is the Law of Effect?

Responses followed by positive outcomes are more likely to be repeated, while those followed by negative outcomes become less likely.

Who is associated with operant conditioning?

Edward Thorndike.

What is reinforcement in operant conditioning?

An event that strengthens the behavior it follows, which can be positive or negative.

What is punishment in operant conditioning?

An event that tends to decrease the behavior it follows, which can also be positive or negative.

What is positive reinforcement?

Adding a stimulus to increase behavior, such as giving money.

What is negative reinforcement?

Removing a stimulus to increase behavior, such as taking away a curfew.

What is positive punishment?

Adding a stimulus to decrease behavior, such as giving chores.

What is negative punishment?

Removing a stimulus to decrease behavior, such as taking away a phone.

What are the four types of reinforcement schedules?

Fixed Ratio, Variable Ratio, Fixed Interval, Variable Interval.

What is a Fixed Ratio schedule?

Reinforcement after a fixed number of responses.

What is a Variable Ratio schedule?

Reinforcement after a variable number of responses.

What is a Fixed Interval schedule?

Reinforcement after a given amount of time has elapsed.

What is a Variable Interval schedule?

Reinforcement after a variable interval of time has elapsed.

What is behavioral therapy inspired by?

Operant conditioning, specifically behavior modification therapy.

What are token economies?

Systems where desired behaviors are positively reinforced with tokens that can be exchanged for rewards.

What is learned helplessness?

A cognitive phenomenon where individuals feel unable to control their situation due to repeated failures.

What is the difference between classical and operant conditioning?

In classical conditioning, delivery is controlled by the experimenter and responses are involuntary; in operant conditioning, delivery is controlled by the participant and responses are voluntary.

What is latent learning?

Learning that occurs without behavioral signs until there is a reason to demonstrate it.

What are the key processes involved in observational learning?

Attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation.

What is memory?

The persistence of learning over time through encoding, storage, and retrieval of information.

What is recall in memory?

Retrieving information that is not currently in conscious awareness.

What is recognition in memory?

Identifying items previously learned.

What is the capacity of short-term memory according to Miller's Magic Number?

7, plus or minus 2 items of information.

What are mnemonics?

Memory aids that use vivid imagery and organizational devices to enhance recall.

What is the spacing effect?

The tendency for distributed practice to yield better long-term retention than massed practice.

What is Baddeley's working memory model?

A model that describes the structure and function of working memory, including components like the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad.

What is the difference between technical and content accuracy in memory?

Technical accuracy refers to recalling exactly what was experienced, while content accuracy refers to recalling the meaning or content of what was experienced.

What is the process by which related information becomes activated in memory?

Spreading activation (one idea activating spreads to related topics)

What are the three types of autobiographical memory?

Personal Memory, Autobiographical Fact, Generic Personal Memory
(a single unrepeated event, a piece of info about oneself, a general often repeated experience)

What distinguishes reproductive memory from reconstructive memory?

Reproductive memory is a verbatim recording of an event, while reconstructive memory combines elements of experience with existing knowledge.

What principle states that retrieval of information is improved when conditions of recovery are similar to encoding conditions?

Encoding-specificity Principle

What is the serial-position curve?

A phenomenon where the first few items (primacy effect) and the last few items (recency effect) in a list are remembered best.

What is proactive interference?

When older learning interferes with the recall of new information.

What is retroactive interference?

When newer learning interferes with the recall of old information.

What is the Brown-Peterson Task used to measure?

It measures short-term memory retention by having participants remember letters while counting backwards.

What are the three theories of forgetting?

Motivated forgetting, encoding failure, and retrieval failure.

What is source amnesia?

The inability to remember where or how one learned information.

What are flashbulb memories?

Vivid, detailed, and long-lasting memories of significant events.

What is the difference between retrograde amnesia and anterograde amnesia?

Retrograde amnesia is the inability to remember past information, while anterograde amnesia is the inability to form new memories.

What is the focus of developmental psychology?

The study of physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the lifespan.

What are the three periods of prenatal development?

Germinal Period, Embryonic Period, Fetal Period.

What is the role of teratogens during prenatal development?

They are agents that can cause harm to the embryo or fetus.

What is a schema in Piaget's theory of cognitive development?

A concept or framework that organizes and interprets information.

What are the four stages of Piaget's Cognitive Development Theory?

Sensorimotor, Preoperational, Concrete Operational, Formal Operational.
(Senses, Symbolically, Logically, Abstract)

What is egocentrism in the context of cognitive development?

The inability to take the perspective of another person, typical in the preoperational stage.

What is the significance of conservation in cognitive development?

It refers to the understanding that objects' properties remain the same despite changes in form, typically developed in the concrete operational stage.

What are the three styles of attachment identified in the Strange Situation?

Secure, Insecure-Avoidant, Insecure-Resistant.

What is the preconventional level in Kohlberg's stages of moral reasoning?

Morality judged in terms of reward and punishment.

What is the conventional level in Kohlberg's stages of moral reasoning?

Morality judged in terms of social order and approval.

What is the postconventional level in Kohlberg's stages of moral reasoning?

Morality judged in terms of abstract principles, like equality and justice.

What are the five stages of psychosocial development according to Erikson?

Trust vs. Mistrust, Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt, Initiative vs. Guilt, Industry vs. Inferiority, Identity vs. Role Confusion.

What is temperament in developmental psychology?

An individual's innate disposition or behavioral style and characteristic response.

What is the significance of the identity crisis during adolescence?

It is a struggle to establish a personal identity or self-concept.

What are the five stages proposed by Elisabeth Kübler-Ross in approaching death?

Denial, Anger, Bargaining, Depression, Acceptance.

Long-Term Potentiation

Process by which synaptic connections between neurons become stronger with frequent activation. (neurons used together become easier to retrieve through essentially teamwork)

What are the two kinds of long term memory

Explicit and Implicit

Explicit Memory (Declarative Memory)

Memory with conscious recall

2 kinds of explicit memory

Semantic and Episodic Memory (facts/general knowledge and personal experiences and events)

Implicit Memory (Nondeclarative Memory)

Memory without recall (knowing how to do a task)

3 kinds of implicit memory

Procedural, Classically Conditioned and Priming (Motor skills and habitz,