Chapter 7: Cognition

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information-processing model

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51 Terms

1

information-processing model

The principal model of memory is the three-box model, also called the

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sensory memory

The first stop for external events is

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George Sperling

demonstrated this in a series of experiments in which he flashed a grid of nine letters, three rows and three columns, to participants for 1/20th of a second.

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Iconic memory

a split-second perfect photograph of a scene.

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Echoic memory

an equally perfect brief (3–4 second) memory for sounds.

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Selective attention

Sometimes selective attention is not as controlled.

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working memory

Short-term memory is also called __ because these are memories we are currently working with and are aware of in our consciousness.

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Long-Term Memory

is our permanent storage.

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Explicit memories

(also called declarative memories) are what we usually think of first.

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Implicit memories

(also called nondeclarative memories) are unintentional memories that we might not even realize we have.

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Alexander Luria

studied a patient with eidetic memory who could repeat a list of 70 letters or digits.

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Levels of Processing Model

This theory explains why we remember what we do by examining how deeply the memory was processed or thought about.

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Recognition

is the process of matching a current event or fact with one already in memory (e.g. “Have I smelled this smell before?”).

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Recall

is retrieving a memory with an external cue (e.g. “What does my Aunt Beki’s perfume smell like?”).

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Hermann Ebbinghaus

(1850–1909) established that the order of items in a list is related to whether or not we will recall them.

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primacy effect

predicts that we are more likely to recall items presented at the beginning of a list.

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recency effect

is demonstrated by our ability to recall the items at the end of a list.

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serial position effect (also called serial position curve)

Together the primacy effect and recency effect demonstrate the

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tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

This temporary inability to remember information is sometimes called the

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semantic network theory

This theory states that our brain might form new memories by connecting their meaning and context with meanings already in memory.

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flashbulb memories

are powerful because the importance of the event caused us to encode the context surrounding the event.

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mood-congruent memory

or the greater likelihood of recalling an item when our mood matched the mood we were in when the event happened.

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State-dependent memory

refers to the phenomenon of recalling events encoded while in particular states of consciousness.

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Constructive Memory

can report false details of a real event or might even be a recollection of an event that never occurred.

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interference

Another factor that causes forgetting is

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Retroactive interference

Learning new information interferes with the recall of older information. If you study your psychology at 3:00 and your sociology at 6:00, you might have trouble recalling the psychology information on a test the next day.

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Proactive interference

Older information learned previously interferes with the recall of information learned more recently. If a researcher reads you a list of items in a certain order, then rereads them differently and asks you to list them in the new order, the old list proactively interferes with recall of the new list.

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anterograde amnesia

they cannot encode new memories

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long-term ­potentiation

At the neurological level, researchers focus on a process called

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Language

is intimately connected to cognition.

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Phonemes

are the smallest units of sound used in a language.

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morpheme

is the smallest unit of meaningful sound.

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holophrastic stage or one-word stage

During which babies speak in single words (holophrases) is sometimes called the

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telegraphic speech or two-word stage

The next language acquisition stage occurs at around 18 months and is called

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overgeneralization or overregularization

This misapplication of grammar rules is called

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language acquisition device

the ability to learn a language rapidly as children (this is also called the nativist theory of language acquisition).

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Benjamin Whorf

theorized that the language we use might control, and in some ways limit, our thinking.

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Describing Thought

Descriptions are thoughts, so we are attempting to describe thought using thought itself.

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Concepts

are similar to the schemata

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images

are the mental pictures we create in our minds of the outside world.

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Problem Solving

Many researchers try to study thought by examining the results of thinking.

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algorithm

is a rule that guarantees the right solution by using a formula or other foolproof method.

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heuristic

is a rule of thumb—a rule that is generally, but not always, true that we can use to make a judgment in a situation.

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Availability heuristic

Judging a situation based on examples of similar situations that come to mind initially.

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Representativeness heuristic

Judging a situation based on how similar the aspects are to prototypes the person holds in his or her mind.

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Overconfidence

is our tendency to overestimate how accurate our judgments are.

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Belief bias

occurs when we make illogical conclusions in order to confirm our preexisting beliefs.

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Belief perseverance

refers to our tendency to maintain a belief even after the evidence we used to form the belief is contradicted.

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Framing

refers to the way a problem is presented.

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convergent thinking

thinking pointed toward one solution,

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divergent thinking

thinking that searches for multiple possible answers to a question.

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