Chapter 1–4 Notes: Human Anatomy, Cells, Tissues, Integumentary System

A comprehensive set of Q&A flashcards covering Chapter 1–4 topics from introduction to human anatomy, cell biology, tissues, and the integumentary system.

What is anatomy?

The study of the structure of the human body.

What is physiology?

The study of body function.

Anatomical terminology is based on which languages?

Ancient Greek or Latin; provides standard nomenclature worldwide.

Name the branches of anatomy mentioned.

Gross anatomy; microscopic anatomy (histology); surface anatomy; developmental anatomy (embryology); pathological anatomy (pathology); radiographic anatomy; functional morphology.

What is gross anatomy?

The study of large structures visible to the naked eye.

What is microscopic anatomy (histology)?

The study of tissues under the microscope.

What is surface anatomy?

The study of external features and landmarks.

What is developmental anatomy?

Embryology; the study of how structures originate and develop.

What is pathological anatomy?

Pathology; the study of disease-related structural changes.

What is radiographic anatomy?

Anatomy as visualized by imaging techniques.

What is functional morphology?

The study of structure-function relationships in the body.

What is the hierarchy of structural organization from chemical to organismal level?

Chemical level → Cellular level → Tissue level → Organ level → Organ system → Organismal level.

What is systemic anatomy vs regional anatomy?

Systemic: study by body system; Regional: study by region; many students use a combination.

What are the functions of the Integumentary system?

Forms external covering; protects deeper tissues; synthesizes vitamin D; site of cutaneous receptors and glands.

What are the main functions of the Skeletal system?

Protects and supports organs; provides framework for muscles; blood cells form in bones; stores minerals.

What are the main functions of the Muscular system?

Locomotion; facial expression; maintains posture; produces heat.

What is the function of the Nervous system?

Fast-acting control system; responds to internal and external changes.

What does the Endocrine system do?

Glands secrete hormones that regulate growth, reproduction, and nutrient use.

What is the Cardiovascular system responsible for?

Blood vessels transport blood; heart pumps blood; carries oxygen, CO2, nutrients, and wastes.

What is the function of the Lymphatic/Immunity system?

Picks up leaked fluid, disposes of debris, houses lymphocytes, mounts immune responses.

What is the role of the Respiratory system?

Keeps blood supplied with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide; gas exchange occurs in alveoli.

What is the function of the Digestive system?

Breaks down food into absorbable units; indigestible material eliminated as feces.

What does the Urinary system do?

Eliminates nitrogenous wastes; regulates water, electrolyte, and acid-base balance.

What is the function of the Male & Female Reproductive systems?

Produce offspring; testes produce sperm and hormones; ovaries produce eggs and hormones; mammary glands produce milk.

What is anatomical position?

Person stands erect, feet together, eyes forward; palms facing anteriorly, thumbs pointing away.

What do anterior and posterior directional terms mean?

Anterior = toward the front; Posterior = toward the back.

What do ventral and dorsal terms refer to?

Ventral = belly/front; Dorsal = back.

What do lateral, medial, and median terms mean?

Lateral = away from midline; Medial/Median = toward midline.

What do superior and inferior mean?

Superior = above; Inferior = below.

What do proximal and distal mean?

Proximal = closer to the origin; Distal = farther from the origin.

What do cephalic and caudal refer to?

Cephalic = toward the head; Caudal = toward the tail.

What is a Coronal (frontal) plane?

Vertical plane dividing the body into anterior and posterior parts.

What is the Median (midsagittal) plane?

Vertical plane that lies in the midline dividing the body into left and right equal parts.

What is a Transverse plane?

Horizontal plane dividing the body into superior and inferior parts.

What are the dorsal body cavities?

Cranial cavity and vertebral (spinal) cavity.

What are the ventral body cavities?

Thoracic cavity (with pleural parts, mediastinum, and pericardial sac) and Abdominopelvic cavity (abdominal + pelvic).

What are serous cavities and serous membranes?

Slit-like spaces lined by serous membranes (parietal and visceral); include pleura, pericardium, and peritoneum.

What is the difference between parietal and visceral serosa?

Parietal serosa lines the cavity; visceral serosa covers the organs.

What are abdominal regions and quadrants?

Nine-region divisions; four-quadrant divisions (Right/Left Upper Quadrants, Right/Left Lower Quadrants).

What is microscopy used for?

Examining small structures with a microscope; light microscopy uses light; electron microscopy uses electrons.

How are tissues prepared for microscopy?

Specimens are fixed, sectioned, and stained; stains can be acidic or basic.

What are the four basic tissue types?

Epithelial, Connective, Muscle, Nervous tissues.

What are the general functions of epithelial tissue?

Protection; absorption, secretion, ion transport; filtration; forms slippery surfaces.

What are the key characteristics of epithelia?

Cellularity; specialized contacts; polarity; support by connective tissue; avascular but innervated; regeneration.

How are epithelia classified by layers and shape?

First name indicates number of layers (Simple or Stratified); last name describes cell shape (Squamous, Cuboidal, Columnar).

Describe Simple Squamous Epithelium and its locations/functions.

Single layer of flat cells; endothelium lines vessels; mesothelium lines body cavities; function: diffusion/filtration and secretion in serosae.

Describe Simple Cuboidal Epithelium and its locations.

Single layer of cube-shaped cells; function: secretion and absorption; locations: kidney tubules, secretory portions of glands, ovary surface.

Describe Simple Columnar Epithelium and its features.

Single layer of tall cells; some bear goblet cells; function: absorption and secretion; locations: digestive tract, gallbladder, ducts; ciliated form lines small bronchi and uterine tubes.

Describe Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium.

All cells originate at basement membrane; nuclei at different heights; often with goblet cells and cilia; function: secretion and mucus propulsion; locations: trachea and upper respiratory tract.

What are Stratified Epithelia and their general role?

Two or more cell layers; major protective role; named by apical cell shape.

What is Stratified Squamous Epithelium and its types?

Many layers; apical layers are squamous; keratinized (epidermis) vs nonkeratinized (mucous membranes like esophagus, mouth, etc.).

What are Stratified Cuboidal and Stratified Columnar epithelia?

Stratified Cuboidal: generally two layers of cubes; protective; locations include ducts of mammary and salivary glands. Stratified Columnar: several layers; protection and secretion; rare; locations include male urethra and large ducts of some glands.

What is Transitional Epithelium?

Basal cells cuboidal/columnar; superficial cells dome-shaped or squamous; functions to stretch and distend urinary bladder; locations include ureters and bladder.

What are Exocrine and Endocrine glands?

Exocrine glands have ducts; endocrine glands are ductless and secrete hormones into bloodstream.

What are Goblet cells?

Unicellular exocrine glands that produce mucin, which makes mucus when hydrated.

What are Multicellular Exocrine Glands?

Glands with ducts and secretory units; classified by duct structure (simple/compound) and secretory unit (tubular/ alveolar/ tubuloalveolar).

What are Endocrine glands?

Glands that are ductless and secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream.

What are cell junctions and their roles?

Tight junctions seal adjacent cells; Adherens junctions connect actin filaments; Desmosomes provide structural strength; Gap junctions allow direct chemical communication between cells.

What is the Basal Lamina?

Noncellular sheet between epithelial cells and underlying connective tissue; selective filter and migration scaffold for regenerating epithelial cells.

What are apical surface features of epithelia?

Microvilli increase surface area for absorption; Cilia move substances via coordinated waves.

What are the three types of connective tissue?

Connective tissue proper; Cartilage; Bone; Blood (often listed as four with blood).

What is Areolar Connective Tissue as a model tissue?

Gel-like matrix with all three fiber types; underlies epithelia; surrounds nerves and vessels; plays a role in inflammation and tissue fluid.

What are the major functions of connective tissue?

Support and binding; fluid storage (interstitial fluid and lymph); defense against infection; nutrient storage as fat.

What are the three fiber types in connective tissue?

Collagen fibers; Reticular fibers; Elastic fibers.

What is Adipose tissue?

Closely packed adipocytes; stores fat; provides insulation and protection; locations include under the skin, around kidneys, behind eyeballs, within abdomen, and in breasts.

What is Reticular Connective Tissue?

Network of reticular fibers in loose ground substance; forms soft internal skeleton (stroma) in lymphoid organs.

What are Dense Connective Tissues?

Dense irregular, dense regular, and elastic tissues with densely packed fibers.

What is Dense Irregular Connective Tissue?

Primarily irregularly arranged collagen fibers; withstands tension in multiple directions; located in the dermis and fibrous capsules.

What is Dense Regular Connective Tissue?

Predominantly parallel collagen fibers; withstands great stress in one direction; locations: tendons, ligaments, aponeuroses.

What is Elastic Connective Tissue?

Predominantly elastic fibers; allows recoil after stretching; locations include arterial walls and certain ligaments.

What are Cartilage types?

Hylaine; Elastic; Fibrocartilage.

What is Hyaline Cartilage?

Imperceptible collagen fibers; chondroblasts produce matrix; chondrocytes in lacunae; supports, reinforces, cushions; location: fetal skeleton, ends of long bones, costal cartilage, nose, trachea, larynx.

What is Elastic Cartilage?

Hylaine-like with more elastic fibers; maintains shape and flexibility; locations: external ear, epiglottis.

What is Fibrocartilage?

Matrix with thick collagen fibers; tensile strength and shock absorption; locations: intervertebral discs, pubic symphysis, knee joints.

What is Bone Tissue?

Calcified matrix with collagen fibers; osteoblasts produce matrix; osteocytes in lacunae; highly vascularized; functions: support, protection, leverage, mineral and fat storage, hematopoiesis in marrow.

What is Blood tissue?

Atypical connective tissue with cells (red/white) in a fluid matrix; transports gases, nutrients, wastes; located within blood vessels.

What are the three coverings and linings membranes?

Cutaneous membrane (skin); Mucous membranes (line hollow organs open to exterior); Serous membranes (slippery membranes around closed cavities: pleura, pericardium, peritoneum).

What are the three types of membranes and their basic features?

Cutaneous, Mucous, Serous; combine epithelial sheets with underlying connective tissue.

What are the three muscle tissue types?

Skeletal, Cardiac, Smooth.

What are the basic characteristics of Skeletal Muscle Tissue?

Long, cylindrical cells; multi-nucleate; obvious striations; voluntary movement.

What are the basic characteristics of Cardiac Muscle Tissue?

Branching, striated, generally uninucleate; intercalated discs; pumps blood in the heart.

What are the basic characteristics of Smooth Muscle Tissue?

Spindle-shaped cells; no striations; involuntary control; propels substances along hollow organs.

What is Nervous Tissue composed of?

Neurons (excitable cells) and supporting neuroglial cells; transmits electrical signals.

What is the inflammatory response?

Nonspecific local response with heat, redness, swelling, pain; histamine increases capillary permeability; edema dilutes toxins and brings nutrients and antibodies.

What is tissue repair, and its main forms?

Regeneration (replacement with the same tissue) and fibrosis (scar tissue formation); organization resets the architecture.

Which tissues have good regenerative capacity?

Epithelia, bone, areolar connective tissue, dense irregular connective tissue, and blood-forming connective tissue.

Which tissues regenerate moderately or poorly?

Moderate: smooth muscle, dense regular connective tissue; Poor: cartilage; Weak/none: skeletal muscle, nervous tissue.

What is the skin’s role as the Integumentary system’s largest organ?

Protects from injury and chemicals, regulates temperature, screens UV light, excretes, and contains sensory receptors.

What are the two main layers of the skin?

Epidermis and Dermis; the Hypodermis lies beneath the dermis.

What are the main cell types in the Epidermis?

Keratinocytes; Melanocytes; Merkel cells; Langerhans cells.

What are the five epidermal layers (thick skin order)?

Stratum basale, Stratum spinosum, Stratum granulosum, Stratum lucidum (only thick skin), Stratum corneum.

What is contained in the Stratum basale?

Deepest layer; actively dividing; contains Merkel cells and Melanocytes.

What is the Stratum spinosum notable for?

Spiny appearance due to thick bundles of tonofilaments; contains prekeratin and Langerhans cells.

What marks the Stratum granulosum?

Keratinocytes with Keratohyalin granules and Lamellated granules; forms keratin and waterproofing layer.

What is special about Stratum lucidum?

Present only in thick skin; few rows of flat, dead keratinocytes.

What is Stratum corneum?

Thick layer of dead keratinocytes; provides protection against abrasion and penetration.

What are the two layers of the Dermis?

Papillary layer (with dermal papillae) and Reticular layer; 80% of dermal thickness.

What is the significance of flexure lines?

Creases on palms indicating dermal folds where skin cannot slide easily.

What are the pigments contributing to skin color?

Melanin (most important), Carotene, Hemoglobin.

Where are Melanocytes located and what do they produce?

Located in the epidermal basal layer; produce melanin pigment.