PSYC 325 MIDTERM

Socialization

the process by which we learn the behaviours, values, skills, beliefs & norms of our society

* significant impact on youth

Media

the intermediary to transmit info.

* means for communicating a message

Mass media

sharing of messages facilitated by technology to large amounts of people

Correlational design

examining the relationship between 2 variables

Experimental design

can examine cause & effect

* includes random assignment
* measures IV & DV

Longitudinal design

same participants are repeatedly tested over time

* most commonly used with correlational designs

Content analysis

analyzing the content of media to identify patterns, themes & concepts in recorded communication

*  you systematically collect data from a set of texts, which can be written, oral, or visual: Books, newspapers and magazines. Speeches and interviews

Natural experiments

where naturally occurring circumstances randomly create differences between indv’s

* ex: studying COVID-19 babies (researchers had no control)

Meta-analysis

relies on studies that have already been created & draws further conclusions

Media use trends

* TV remains most common form of media entertainment
* hard to study as people may lie or not know
* huge increase of screen time over last 8 years

→ larger jump for boys, low SES, communities of colour

Infant (0-3) media preference

* bright colours, striking perceptual features
* educational content
* cartoons
* parentese speaking
* ex: teletubbies

Child (3-12) media preference

* more complex content (story / narrative that fits into their level of knowledge)
* comedy
* gender-stereotyped content
* NOT interested in educational content (spinach effect)

Adolescent media preference

* speed & variety
* social media
* reality & realistic content
* ex: tiktok

Video deficit

until around 3, infants are less likely to learn from a screen than from a live interaction

* babies can imitate actions when watching live but not from a tv screen (same for word learning)
* its possible to learn from screens but only simple things

Symbolic representation

under the age of 3 children don’t understand the TV screen means something else

* its not the actual TV they struggle with but the symbol linkage
* have more success when TV looks like a window (real world)

When might an infant/ toddler learn better from screen media?

* socially contingent (video chat)
* an adult is also watching & engaging with them
* socially meaningful characters & cues are used
* they are watching familiar people / characters

Perceptual processing

how things physically look/sound

* younger children can only focus on this
* occurs in media too (focus on appearance not actions)

Conceptual processing

making deeper connections to information

Piaget’s centration

displayed that young children can only focus on perceptually salient features

* believe that the volume of liquid changes when poured in new jar
* until about age 6-7

Understanding the message

* young children often fixate on action, not underlying motives or messages
* inference doesn’t seem to develop until 6-8+

Reality vs. Fantasy

children 3 & under struggle to understand the relationship between media & reality

Identity & Media

* searching for an identity is an important hallmark of adolescence
* use of social media helps create identity?
* 50% of 9-18yr olds have pretended to be someone else on the internet
* heavily focused on peers & fitting in

Imaginary audience

the belief that others are always paying attention to you

Personal fable

the belief that you & your experiences are unique

Brain development in adolescence

* limbic system (reward system) more developed than prefrontal cortex
* increased risky behaviour & media use

Sexuality in adolescence

* increased interest in sexual content
* teens using media to understand / explore their sexuality

Hypodermic needle theory

believes that everyone is impacted by media in the exact same way

* idea that media “injects” us & changes our beliefs
* original theory of media effects that arose from propaganda

Cultivation theory

media gradually cultivates certain views in the audience **over time**

* drip, drip theory
* constant exposure starts to cultivate similar views in those who consume the same media
* different impacts based on amount of use

Resonance

the similarity between media and an indv’s circumstances

* how relatable it is

Mainstreaming

the idea that heavy users of the same media will tend to homogenize in their views / beliefs

Social learning / social cognition theory

we learn behaviour through observing the behaviour of others

* Bandura’s bobo doll experiment

Uses & gratifications theory

Indv’s are driven to media for various reasons & those reasons matter

* media effects us differently depending on our motivations for consumption
* could be habit, escape, companionship, learning, relaxation, sensation etc.

“The medium is the message”

Marshall Mcluhan statement

* meaning the medium of media itself has an impact
* the creation of new technology is changing humans the most

Reduction Hypothesis

consuming high amounts of screen media leads to poor academic achievement

* a general correlation does exist but not very strong
* media use correlated with academic performance, test scores, poorer educational content

What are some theories to why the reduction hypothesis occurs?

* time displacement
* mental effort
* attention & impulsivity

Time displacement

media takes away from intellectually beneficial activities (takes up your time)

* but many studies suggest that media use generally displaces other media use
* exception: screen media displacing reading in young children which impacts reading acquisition

Mental effort

media use is passive and causes passive thinking to become the norm

* idea that media “trains you”
* very little evidence (young kids are often quite engaged)

Attention & impulsivity

media use shortens attention spans and increases impulse behaviour

* very inconclusive results

Possible 3rd variables to the reduction hypothesis?

* parental monitoring
* SES of family

Goldilocks / curvilinear pattern

some studies have suggested a moderate use of media is positively correlated with achievement but heavy use has a negative correlation

Content matters patterns with children

children saw better educational achievement when watching educational content (tested at 2-3 & then 5-7 yr olds)

* no correlation with non educational children content
* negative correlation when watching tv meant for general audience

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longitudinal study:

* tested at 5 & 15
* informative content positive correlation with grades in boys
* “violent” cartoons negative correlation with grades in girls

Why was sesame street created?

to foster intellectual & cultural development in preschoolers

* focus on children from low income & marginalized backgrounds
* use of research on child development to create content
* many studies link watching it to academic skills

Educational media success

most success shown when the media has specific goals

* many teach children vocab, spelling, literacy & prosocial skills
* struggle to teach more complex skills (grammar)

Features of good educational media

* moderate discrepancy: differs slightly from what they know so they can build of previous knowledge but be slightly challenged
* repetition to repeat goals & ideas
* participatory cues

Age of prime educational media

children aged 3-5 benefit best

* younger struggle to learn due to video deficit
* older: lose interest? not as good content?

Capacity model

we have limited cognitive resources in our working memory which makes it hard to focus on too many concepts at a time

* narrative & educational content compete for resources
* narrative always wins

What do we learn from gaming?

* problem solving
* persistence
* creativity
* possible improvement in aspects of visual attention / cognitive processing

Violence

any act or threat of force against the self or others

Media violence

media that portrays some form of harm

Aggression

any action intended to cause harm

* physical & verbal both direct
* relational can be direct / indirect (harming someone’s social relations / status)

Factors that impact that impact the likelihood of acting aggressively

* aggressive emotions
* aggressive traits
* physiological factors
* aggressive thoughts

Catharsis

a historical theory that believed violent impulses could be ‘purged’ through consuming violent media

Social cognition theory & violence

argued against catharsis & supported observational learning

* impacted by reinforcements & punishments
* influenced by personal factors / cognitions

Scripts

personal “screenplays” that give us an idea of what is expected to occur during interactions (guides our behaviour)

* based on experiences & observational learning
* violent media may create expectations that conflict is solved through violence

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Priming

violent stimuli activates aggressive thoughts which can then “prime” other related thoughts

* constant violent stimuli can affect future reactions by activating violent thoughts

Excitation Transfer

consuming violent media leads to arousal which we accidentally interpret as anger

* become more likely to act aggressively
* (short term)

Desensitization

repeated exposure to media violence leads to lessened emotional reaction (normalized)

* long term

General aggression model

an attempt to integrate multiple theories to explain the impacts of violent media

**input variables:** determine an indv’s likelihood to act aggressively (personality, genetics etc.)

→ impact **routes** to aggressive behaviour by influencing the internal state

→ a given situation is then appraised, creating the **outcome** of whether to act aggressively or not (evaluate situation & choose response)

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General aggression model short & long term impacts

short-term: violent media impacts arousal & affect, it also primes aggressive thoughts

long-term: violent media creates more aggressive scripts which may be reinforced & lead to a more aggressive personality and/or desensitization to violence

TV violence correlation

most studies show a positive correlation between TV consumption & aggressive cognitions / behaviour

* exposure to TV violence correlated with kids willingness to use violence & the perceived effectiveness of violence
* more consistently seen with boys

Video game violence correlation

most studies show positive correlation

* violent video game play correlated to lower empathy & positive attitudes towards violence

Longitudinal designs with violent media

most studies suggest that consumption of media violence can predict aggressive behaviour in future

* violent TV consumption in grade 3-4 related to aggressive behaviour in early 20s
* aggressive behaviour in grade 3-4 not related to violent TV consumption in early 20s

Downward spiral model

a consistent spiral relationship between aggressiveness and violent media use

* hard to predict beginning

TV / video games violence & experimental research

Those who watch TV violence / play violent video games are more likely to demonstrate aggressive behaviours/cognitions

(majority of studies NOT ALL)

* small to moderate effect

Who is most likely to consumer violent media?

* boys
* highly aggressive individuals
* younger children

When are people most likely to immitate violence?

* children imitating children
* men imitating men
* playing with personalized avatars

Wishful identification

wanting to be like certain characters

* wishful identification linked to impact of violent media (more aggressive)

What features of media may lead to more aggression?

* perpetrators are appealing
* violence is rewarded or unpunished
* no consequences to victim
* violence is for a purpose (jusitified)
* violence is realistic

Prosocial behaviour & violent video games

prosocial behaviour was more common after cooperative video game play (especially violent ones)

* it meets psychological needs of satisfaction
* collaborative play linked more to feelings of competence, relatedness, enjoyment

Sexual media

any representation of sex or sexual themes

* sexual behaviour (broadly defined even kissing)
* suggestions of sexual behaviour
* sexual talk (much more common)

Sexual media messages

* youth oriented media often does not include messages about the risks & responsibility
* most common consequences portrayed are emotional
* more negative consequences for females and straight characters in comparison to male & LGBTQ+

Heterosexual script

most sexual encounters are depicted through a heterosexual lens

* gendered behaviour (men pursue women are pursued)

Sexual socialization

how we learn to think about sex

* our sexual knowledge, values, attitudes & behaviours develop
* influenced by biology, parents, peers, culture, media

Third person effect

teens often think that media impacts sexual development for others but not necessarily for themselves

Sexualization

to make something sexual

* connecting value to the trait of being sexy
* sexuality being inappropriately imposed on someone

Sexual objectification

turning a person into a thing or object for the sexual use of others

Social cognition theory & sexual media

the idea that media consumers will observe & model sexual behaviour

* more likely to model indv’s similar to self / those with positive traits

Cultivation theory & sexual media

long term repeated consumption of sexual themes will shape attitudes & beliefs

* repeatedly being shown the same messages

Sexual scripts theory

sexuality & sexual behaviour determined by stereotyped patterns of sexual expectations

Media practice model

media use is active and individual, we choose what to consumer & how it impacts us

* our identity plays a major role in the interaction

Sexual cognition research

consuming greater amounts of sexual media associated with…

* more accepting of sex, especially towards sex outside of a committed relationship
* belief that more friends are engaging in sexual behaviour (only about 50% of teens)
* expectations of fewer negative consequences associated with sex
* beliefs of women as sex objects

Sexual media as educational tool

* media can have a positive impact on sexual knowledge

Sexual media & sexual behaviour

greater amounts of sexual media correlated with

* greater likelihood of having engaged in sexual behaviour
* more sexual partners
* having started sexual behaviour at earlier ages

Sexual media exposure race differences

* white youth who watched more sexual media predicted them having sex at an earlier age
* black youth not impacted by media (but still having sex at younger ages)
* ex: a white 13 year old would be most affected by sexual media

Sexual media exposure age differences

early adolescence is impacted more compared to late / adulthood

Limitations of sexual media & sexual behaviour correlations

* accuracy of survey response
* sample demographics (biased)
* correlation not causation
* lack of generalizability
* focus only on sexual risks not sexual satisfaction

Queer representation in media

TV: historically very little representation but increasing

* LGBTQ+ indv’s often portrayed as sexless or hypersexualized
* stereotyped one dimensional portrayals (funny gay best friend or only defined by their sexuality)
* linked to more accepting views on straight consumers

Queer consumers

* often report getting info. about sex & sexuality from media
* cane be validating or demeaning portrayals

Intergroup contact theory

stereotyping & discrimination can be reduced when indv’s from different social groups have contact

Parasocial contact hypothesis

media consumers can form relationships with media characters which may reduce stereotyping & discrimination

Sexually explicit media

direct depictions of sexual activities with the intention to arouse

* genitals shown
* penetration visinle

Sexually explicit media & youth

sizeable proportion of youth are exposed to pornography

* huge range between 7-98%
* unintentional exposure more common 19-84%
* intentional: 7-59%

Whio is more likely to access sexually explicit media?

* men/ boys
* pubertally more advanced
* indv’s high in sensation seeking
* weak or troubled family relationships

Negative impacts of porn

* more permissive views about sex
* greater likelihood of sexual behaviour / casual sex
* gender stereotyped beliefs
* sexual agression linked to violent porn?
* possibly believe sex has no risks / consequences

Positive impacts of porn

* source of info. about sex
* knowledge about human body
* recognizing / confirming sexual identity
* sexual satisfaction

Global time estimates (GTE)

a participant answers a series of questions regarding the amount of time spent engaging in a particular media-related activity

* imprecise data
* prone to social desirability

Social desirability

when people provide answers they deem are more socially acceptable

Time use diaries (TUD)

respondents record all of their activities over a 24 hour period (including non-media related activities)

* relays an indv’s day is it unfolds
* don’t provide any info regarding the content of media consumed

Media diaries

TUD’s that spotlight media use

* participants easily record their media consumption by circling an answer on a guide
* parents fill out for children under 8

Electronic monitoring (EMSs)

collect media data automatically by connecting a meter to a tv set or having the indv carry around a small portable meter

* record the type of content & use of media
* but a failure to login or log out can produce erroneous data
* primarily used for commercial assessments of radio & tv use