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A Treatise of Human Nature
David Hume's work on empiricism, skepticism, and human psychology.
Adam Smith
Economist and philosopher, key figure in classical economics.
The Theory of Moral Sentiments
Smith's work on moral philosophy and sympathy as the basis of ethics.
Thomas Reid
Founder of the Scottish Common Sense school of philosophy, critic of Hume.
Claude-Adrien Hélvetius
Philosopher advocating that all human behavior stems from self-interest.
Étienne Bonnot de Condillac
Philosopher who emphasized the role of sensation in knowledge.
Bernard Mandeville
Economist and philosopher who argued that private vices benefit public prosperity.
The Fable of the Bees
Mandeville's satirical work showing how selfishness drives economic growth.
Francis Hutcheson
Scottish philosopher advocating moral sense theory.
The Physiocrats
French economists who emphasized agriculture as the source of wealth.
François Quesnay
Leading Physiocrat, developed Tableau Économique.
The Tableau Économique
Quesnay's economic model illustrating wealth flow in an economy.
Anne Robert Jacques Turgot
French economist and statesman advocating free trade and tax reform.
Laissez-faire
Economic principle promoting minimal government intervention.
The Wealth of Nations
Adam Smith's foundational work on free markets and division of labor.
Guillaume-Thomas Raynal
Historian critical of European colonialism and slavery.
The History of the Two Indies
Raynal's book criticizing European imperialism and colonial exploitation.
Supplement to the Voyage of Bougainville
Diderot's work critiquing European colonial attitudes and morality.
St. Domingue
France's wealthiest Caribbean colony, later Haiti, site of a major slave revolt.
Le Code Noir
French decree regulating slavery in colonies.
The Royal African Company
British company monopolizing the transatlantic slave trade.
Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade
British abolitionist group pushing for the end of slavery.
The Society of the Friends of the Blacks
French group advocating for the abolition of slavery.
Cesare Beccaria
Italian criminologist advocating for justice reform and against torture.
On Crimes and Punishments
Beccaria's work calling for humane legal systems and abolition of capital punishment.
Nakaz, or Instructions to the Legislative Commission
Catherine the Great's legal document promoting Enlightenment reforms in Russia.
The Adventures of Telemachus
A novel by François Fénelon criticizing absolute monarchy.
The Quarrel of the Ancients and the Moderns
A literary and cultural debate in 17th-18th century France over classical vs. modern values.
Cardinal Richelieu
Chief minister to Louis XIII, strengthened royal power and centralized France.
Cardinal Mazarin
Successor to Richelieu, helped Louis XIV consolidate power.
The Fronde
Series of civil wars (1648-1653) challenging royal authority in France.
L'Etat c'est moi
"I am the state," attributed to Louis XIV, symbolizing absolute monarchy.
The Hall of Mirrors
Grand gallery in the Palace of Versailles, a symbol of royal power.
The Sun King
Louis XIV's title, reflecting his absolute rule.
Dirigisme
State-directed economic policy in France.
Jean-Baptiste Colbert
Louis XIV's finance minister, promoted mercantilism.
The Royal Intendants
Officials enforcing royal authority in French provinces.
The Parlement of Paris
High court resisting royal policies in France.
Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet
Advocate of divine right monarchy.
François Fénelon
Critic of Louis XIV's rule, author of The Adventures of Telemachus.
The Nobility of the Robe
Non-military nobles who gained status through administrative service.
The Third Estate
Commoners in pre-revolutionary France.
The War of the Grand Alliance
Conflict (1688-1697) against Louis XIV's expansion.
The War of the Spanish Succession
War (1701-1714) over Spanish throne succession.
The Peace of Utrecht
Treaty (1713-1714) ending the War of the Spanish Succession, curbing French power.
Frederick William I
Prussian king, strengthened the military and bureaucracy.
Frederick II
"Frederick the Great," Prussian king who expanded the state.
The First Servant of the State
Frederick II's view on monarchy as a duty to the people.
Cameralism
German economic policy favoring strong state intervention.
The Junkers
Prussian nobility, key to military and bureaucracy.
Peter the Great
Russian czar who modernized and expanded Russia.
The Table of Ranks
Russian system ranking nobles by service rather than birth.
Catherine II
"Catherine the Great," expanded Russian power and reformed government.
Maria Theresa
Austrian empress, strengthened central authority.
Joseph II
Enlightened Austrian ruler, pursued radical reforms.
The Long Parliament
English Parliament (1640-1660) challenging royal authority.
The Restoration
Return of Charles II to the English throne (1660).
Charles II
Restored English king, known for tolerance and patronage of arts.
James II
Catholic English king deposed in the Glorious Revolution.
The Glorious Revolution
Overthrow of James II (1688), establishing constitutional monarchy.
The English Bill of Rights
1689 document limiting royal power, ensuring parliamentary sovereignty.
John Locke
Philosopher of liberalism and government by consent.
The Second Treatise of Government
Locke's work advocating natural rights and government by contract.
The Fiscal-Military State
System funding standing armies through taxation.
The Bank of England
Established in 1694 to stabilize finances and support war efforts.
The London Royal Exchange
Hub of finance and trade in England.
The Act of Settlement
1701 law ensuring Protestant succession to the English throne.
Acts of Union
1707 and 1801 acts uniting Scotland, England, and later Ireland.
Queen Anne
Last Stuart monarch, oversaw the Acts of Union.
George I
First Hanoverian king of Britain, relied on ministers.
Robert Walpole
Britain's first Prime Minister, known for stabilizing government.
The South Sea Bubble
1720 financial crisis from speculative stock trading.
The Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge
Leading scientific institution.
The Académie des sciences
French scientific academy.
Francis Bacon
Philosopher promoting empirical scientific method.
Induction
Reasoning from observation to general principles.
The New Organon
Bacon's work on scientific methodology.
The Idols of the Mind
Bacon's concept of cognitive biases.
Nullius in verba
Royal Society's motto, meaning 'Take nobody's word for it.'
The Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society
First scientific journal.
Pyrrhonian Skepticism
Extreme doubt about knowledge.
René Descartes
Philosopher of rationalism and dualism.
The Discourse on Method
Descartes' work outlining rationalist philosophy.
Cogito ergo sum
'I think, therefore I am.'
An Essay Concerning Human Understanding
Locke's work on empiricism.
Thinking Matter
Locke's idea that matter could think.
Tabula rasa
Locke's concept of the mind as a blank slate.
Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems
Galileo's defense of heliocentrism.
Tourbillons
Descartes' theory of planetary motion.
Isaac Newton
Physicist, formulated laws of motion and gravity.
Philosophiae naturalis principia mathematica
Newton's foundational physics work.
Voltaire
Enlightenment writer and critic of the Church.
The Letter on Locke
Voltaire's praise of Locke's philosophy.
The Elements of the Philosophy of Newton
Voltaire's work promoting Newtonian science.
Emilie du Châtelet
Physicist, translated Newton's Principia into French.
Grub Street
London's literary underworld.
Bildungsroman
Novel focused on personal development.
Philosophical Tale / Conte philosophique
Fiction used to convey philosophical ideas.
The Encyclopédie
Diderot's and d'Alembert's massive Enlightenment work.
The Philosophes
Intellectuals promoting reason and reform.
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