Sociocultural Approach Summative Review

IB Psychology

Social Identity Theory Study (SAQ)

Chen et al. - buying habits [Singaporean vs. American]

Terms: Confucian Work Dynamism: emphasizes persistence, thrift, and a strong sense of duty, prioritizing future rewards and long-term goals over immediate gratification; Social Identity Theory: A person has not just one “personal-self”, but also several selves that correspond to internalized group membership; Salience: quality of being particularly noticeable or important.

Aim: The aim of this study was to investigate the role of the Confucian Work Dynamism (long-term orientation) on an individual's buying habits.

Methods: Conducted through an online quiz with 149 bi-cultural participants from a Singaporean university, and participants were randomly allocated to a certain condition. Participants were first primer to make their American/Singaporean ethnicity more salient—or make them more aware of it (this was done by displaying 12 pictures of famous people, well-known buildings, brand names, and flags which were relevant to either culture). After looking at the collage, they were asked to write down as many of the images they could remember. Then participants were given a scenario to purchase a novel online with a delivery of 5 days or one where they could pay extra to receive it in one day. Finally, participants were asked to list the first 3 politicians that came to mind.

Results: People salient w/ Western, when compared to Eastern, were more likely to opt for one day delivery, displaying the Confucian Work Dynamism playing a role. In both, participants named politicians relevant to the culture they were primed for (so salience for a culture was consistent throughout the study)

Stereotype Formation Theory Study (SAQ)

Hamilton and Gifford - ranking members of Group A vs Group B

Terms: Stereotype: A fix, over generalized belief about a particular group or class of people; minority: a relatively small group of people, especially one commonly discriminated against in a community.

Aim: To investigate cognitive processes which determine illusory correlation between undesirable behaviors and minorities

Methods: Participants were shown a series of slides, each with a statement about a member of one of two groups - simply called group A and B. There were twice as many people in group A (26) as group B (13), so group B was the minority group. The participants were told that group B was smaller than group A before starting the experiment. Each statement was about one individual in one of the two groups; the statement was either positive or negative. Each group had the same proportion of positive and negative comments. Participants were then asked to rank members of each group on a series of 20 traits. After completing this task, they were given a booklet in which they were given a statement and then asked whether the person who did this was from Group A or Group B. Finally, they were asked how many of the statements for each group had been "undesirable."

Results: On the trait ratings, group A was ranked higher than group B for positive traits and lower for negative traits. In the booklet, participants correctly recalled more positive traits for group A (74%) than for group B (54%) and more negative traits for group B (55%) than for group A (65%). Participants overestimated the number of negative traits in the minority group, but this finding was not significantly significant.

Effect of Stereotypes on Behavior Study (SAQ)

Steele and Aronson - stereotype threat, SAT scores white vs. African Americans

Terms: Stereotype threat: Psychological threat that arises when one is in a situation or doing something for which a negative stereotype about one’s group applies; Stereotype: a fixed, over generalized view on a particular group of individuals that is usually negative, but can be neutral or positive; standardized testing: a type of assessment administered and scored uniformly for all test takers, ensuring consistent questions and grading, allowing for comparisons of performance across individuals or groups.

Aim: The aim of the study was to see how stereotype threat affects test performance in African Americans.

Methods: 76 black and white, male and female undergraduates from Stanford University. Independent variables: race of participants and standardized test scores. Then told: test diagnosed intellectual ability, or test saw your abilities in problem-solving. Participants were randomly assigned to one condition—with an even split.

Results: No significant differences in gender; in race saw black participants perform significantly worse than white in the first condition, but equally as well in the second condition

Enculturation Study (SAQ)

Kimball (1986) - descriptive methods, studied role of TV in children’s gender roles development

Terms: Gender roles: the socially constructed expectations and behaviors associated with being male or female, which influence how individuals perceive themselves and interact with others, Enculturation: the gradual adoption of the behaviors and beliefs that are the norm for our culture; Modeling: Observing of other people’s behavior

Aim: Study the impact of television on children's aggressive behaviour by carrying out a longitudinal natural experiment

Methods: 120 children conducted in 3 small towns in British Columbia and Canada, studied before and after a town (Notel) didn't have TV and again in 1975 when the town received a channel, 2 other towns with TV but got new channels were also observed

Results: Aggressive behavior of children in Notel increased significantly from '73 to '75, aggressive behavior of children in the other two towns didn't change significantly, peer and teacher ratings supported findings, males more physically aggressive than females, children's favorite shows showed no difference between aggressive and less aggressive children, heightened arousal (from TV) and sudden exposure to a wide array of models on TV resulted in greater likelihood of aggression, seen through modeling

Acculturation Study (SAQ)

Lueck and Wilson - interviews of Asian immigrants & Asian Americans, looked at predicting acculturative stress

Terms: Acculturation: assimilation to a different culture, typically the dominant one; acculturative stress: the psychological and physical strain experienced by individuals when adapting to a new culture or society

Aim: The aim of this study was to investigate the variables that may predict acculturative stress in a nationally representative sample of Asian immigrants and Asian Americans.

Methods: 2095 Asian Americans—1271 of the participants were first-generation immigrants who were 18 years and older when they came to the US. The rest of the sample was born in the US to first-generation immigrant parents. The sample consisted of several different Asian cultures, including Chinese, Filipino, and Vietnamese. The researchers carried out semi-structured interviews. The interviewers had cultural and linguistic backgrounds similar to those of the sample population. Interviews were conducted either over the Internet or face-to-face. A randomly selected sample of participants was contacted to validate the data taken from their interviews. The interviews measured the participants’ level of acculturative stress. They also measured the impact of language proficiency, language preference, discrimination, social networks, family cohesion, and socioeconomic status on acculturative stress.

Results: In 1433 of the 2095 interviews, participants were found to have acculturative stress according to their acculturative stress score – that is, 70% of the sample.

Social Identity Theory Study 1 (ERQ)

Chen et al. - buying habits [Singaporean vs. American]

Terms: Confucian Work Dynamism: emphasizes persistence, thrift, and a strong sense of duty, prioritizing future rewards and long-term goals over immediate gratification; Social Identity Theory: A person has not just one “personal-self”, but also several selves that correspond to internalized group membership; Salience: quality of being particularly noticeable or important.

Aim: The aim of this study was to investigate the role of the Confucian Work Dynamism (long-term orientation) on an individual's buying habits.

Methods: Conducted through an online quiz with 149 bi-cultural participants from a Singaporean university, and participants were randomly allocated to a certain condition. Participants were first primer to make their American/Singaporean ethnicity more salient—or make them more aware of it (this was done by displaying 12 pictures of famous people, well-known buildings, brand names, and flags which were relevant to either culture). After looking at the collage, they were asked to write down as many of the images they could remember. Then participants were given a scenario to purchase a novel online with a delivery of 5 days or one where they could pay extra to receive it in one day. Finally, participants were asked to list the first 3 politicians that came to mind.

Results: People salient w/ Western, when compared to Eastern, were more likely to opt for one day delivery, displaying the Confucian Work Dynamism playing a role. In both, participants named politicians relevant to the culture they were primed for (so salience for a culture was consistent throughout the study)

Evaluation: The study had ecological validity, as participants took the test online, a method that is widely used in the real world. However, there is questionable internal validity due to this test being online as people could have cheated and they could be in various environments (one that let’s them focus/be distracted), etc. So, many confounding variables were not addressed. Study is only generalizable to Singaporean-Americans who attend university in Singapore.

Social Identity Theory Study 2 (ERQ)

Tajfel et al - “Us” vs. “Them” w/ Paintings

Terms: Social Identity Theory: A person has not just one “personal-self”, but also several selves that correspond to internalized group membership; Out-Group: a group that an individual doesn't identify with or belong to, often leading to negative attitudes, stereotypes, and discrimination compared to their "in-group"; In-group: a social group with which an individual identifies and feels a sense of belonging; In-group favoritism: the tendency to favor one's own group over others, leading to preferential treatment and potentially negative attitudes towards out-groups

Aim: The aim of this study was to investigate if intergroup discrimination would take place based on group placement

Methods: The methods included 48 schoolboys from age 14-15 who were asked to rate 12 abstract expressionist paintings by either Klee or Kandinsky. They were not aware of who was the artist of each painting during the test. The boys were then randomly allocated to two separate groups and were told that the placements were based on the boys’ ratings. Each boy was then told to award points to one boy in his group and one boy in the other group, based on 2 point allocation systems. System 1 had the boys give points to each other out of 15 and System 2 had 3 conditions: give high value point to own team, then other team would get more points; given a mid-range value for their own team, then other team would get exact same points; or if a participant gave lower-value to their team, then the other team would get solely 1 point.

Results: Results showed System 1 had boys awarding more points to those in their own in-group compared to those in the out-group; showed in-group favoritism. For System 2, boys chose third variation, awarding least amount of points possible to out-group, even though it meant awarding fewer points to those in their in-group. If both followed 1st variation, it would showcase a higher yield of points, overall. Thus, the study supports the natural tendency of members in a group to favor in-groups.

Evaluation: The study lacks ecological validity as the tasks the boys were asked to do were unlikely to naturally occur in the real world; the experiment had a high level of control as well. However, due to confounding variables being controlled, the study’s reliability is strong, and it can be easily replicated to prove reliability. The boys may have displayed demand characteristics to impress the researchers, however, influencing the results and challenging the internal validity of the study. Finally this study cannot be generalizable to girls, adults, and people from other countries due to the sample set (participants) chosen.

Stereotype Formation Study 1 (ERQ)

Hamilton and Gifford - ranking members of Group A vs Group B

Terms: Stereotype: A fix, over generalized belief about a particular group or class of people; minority: a group of people not a majority of the population, making them an easy target for discrimination when compared to the majority; representative: ; illusory correlation:

Aim: To investigate cognitive processes which determine illusory correlation between undesirable behaviors and minorities

Methods: In the first variation, participants were shown a series of slides, each with a statement about a member of one of two groups - simply called group A and B. There were twice as many people in group A (26) as group B (13), so group B was the minority group. The participants were told that group B was smaller than group A before starting the experiment. Each statement was about one individual in one of the two groups; the statement was either positive or negative. Each group had the same proportion of positive and negative comments. Participants were then asked to rank members of each group on a series of 20 traits. After completing this task, they were given a booklet in which they were given a statement and then asked whether the person who did this was from Group A or Group B. Finally, they were asked how many of the statements for each group had been "undesirable." The second variation of the study was highly similar to the first, only with all females and the fact that there was a minority group was not mentioned.

Results: For the 1st variation, on the trait ratings, group A was ranked higher than group B for positive traits and lower for negative traits. In the booklet, participants correctly recalled more positive traits for group A (74%) than for group B (54%) and more negative traits for group B (55%) than for group A (65%). Participants overestimated the number of negative traits in the minority group, but this finding was not significantly significant. For the second variation of the study,

Evaluation: The researchers determined the groups, as well as the traits presented on the slides—and whether or not mentioning who was the minority (word with negative connotations)—making this study highly artificial and lacking ecological validity. Many more factors that fuel stereotyping than what was depicted in the study. Varying levels of generalizability, as males and females undergraduates were included in the first study, while other used solely female. Overall was extremely limited. W/ varying sample set, reliability is also questioned: can a causation from a correlation be drawn, or was the all-female study just more respectful towards the minorities?

Stereotype Formation Study 2 (ERQ)

Rogers and Frantz (1961) - immigrants to Zimbabwe and the adoption of stereotypes

Terms: Stereotypes: A fixed, over generalized belief about a particular group or class of people; Out-Group: a group that an individual doesn't identify with or belong to, often leading to negative attitudes, stereotypes, and discrimination compared to their "in-group"; In-group: a social group with which an individual identifies and feels a sense of belonging

Aim: The aim of this study was to observe if attitudes of European settlers in South Rhodesia (current day Zimbabwe) would be inversely correlated to the amount of time that they lived in the country (so more time they lived there, they would become more “conservative.”)

Methods: 500 White Europeans ages 20+ living in Rhodesia for less than 5 years to over 40 years. Stratified sample (sex, country of birth, age, length of residence was factored). There were 8 other variables considered in the demographics, like income and occupation. Survey of 66 laws and customs where White Europeans and Africans are treated differently and participants were asked to rank their opinions on a variation of the Likert scale. Numbers 0, 2, 4, 6 were provided, but not 3, forcing participants to take a clearly side than “neutral.”

Results: Mean score amongst all: 2.45 (Europeans favored current laws). 70% fell below mean score of 3.00. Age, sex, district of residence, and income not relevant; birth, occupation, level of schooling, religious affiliation, political party preference, and length of residence in Southern Rhodesia did have significant statistical correlation. Europeans living less than 5 years were less accepting of norms, but more than 5-9 years were 27% more conservative about maintaining segregated facilities.

Evaluation: The ecological validity is very strong in this study, as various factors were considered in a White European’s background living in Southern Rhodesia, avoiding assumptions and a one dimensional view. Generalizability is lacking as it cannot be applied to White European’s views in other countries, or even Northern Rhodesia. Study can be easily replicated to bolster generalizability.

Effects of Stereotypes on Behavior Study 1 (ERQ)

Martin and Halverson - gender schema theory/enculturation

Terms: Schema: Mental structure of preconceived ideas, a framework representing some aspect of the world, or a system to organize and perceive new info; Gender Schema Theory: explains how individuals learn and internalize gender roles through schemas that organize gender-related information, influencing their perceptions and behaviors; Enculturation: the gradual adoption of the behaviors and beliefs that are the norm for our culture; Stereotype: a fixed, over generalized view on a particular group of individuals that is usually negative, but can be neutral or positive

Aim: The aim of the study is to investigate the role of gender schemas on a child’s ability to recall information that was not consistent with their gender schema.

Methods: The sample consisted of 48 children (24 males and 24 females) aged 5-6 years old enrolled in local kindergartens. Children were given the SERLI test to assess their level of gender stereotypes prior to the experiment. Then, showed 16 pictures of male and females in activities that were either in line with gender role schemas or inconsistent, one at a time. The children were asked to identify the sex of the person in the picture and were not told to remember the picture. A week later, they were asked asked to recall the pictures as the researchers carried out a probed recall procedure. They were asked about 24 pictures—16 they had seen and 8 that they had not seen. The 8 “unseen” pictures were for response bias. They were asked if they remember being shown pictures and who was in it (they were able to say that they didn’t remember). They were also asked to rate their confidence.

Results: For female actor pictures, activities that were consistent with gender stereotypes were often more likely to be remembered for male actors, suggesting that male stereotyping was heavily constrained in this society. Children often distorted memories of pictures that were not consistent with gender stereotypes; they were more confident and demonstrated less distortion of memory when the stories were constituent with gender schemas.

Evaluation: Due to this study being highly standardized, it can be easily replicated to determine its lvl of reliability. Lack eco. validity b/c very artificial and highly controlled; also may not accurately reflect how children develop gender stereotypes. Low generalizability as only 5-6 yr olds from a particular kindergarten were tested, instead of kids from various kindergartens.

Effects of Stereotypes on Behavior Study 2 (ERQ)

Steele and Aronson - stereotype threat, SAT scores white vs. African Americans

Terms: Stereotype threat: Psychological threat that arises when one is in a situation or doing something for which a negative stereotype about one’s group applies; Stereotype: A fix, over generalized belief about a particular group or class of people; standardized testing: a type of assessment administered and scored uniformly for all test takers, ensuring consistent questions and grading, allowing for comparisons of performance across individuals or groups.

Aim: The aim of the study was to see how stereotype threat affects test performance in African Americans.

Methods: 76 black and white, male and female undergraduates from Stanford University. Independent variables: race of participants and test scores. Then told: test diagnosed intellectual ability, or test saw your abilities in problem-solving. Participants were randomly assigned to one condition—with an even split.

Results: No significant differences in gender; in race saw black participants perform significantly worse than white in the first condition, but equally as well in the second condition

Evaluation: Considerable amount of generalizability (males, females, black, and white), but lacking b/c only from Stanford University, so not representative and difficult to generalize. Ecological validity is sufficient, but internal validity is severely lacking (African Americans only test once and scores were adjusted based on how White participants did); thus, results are invalid and nullify the stereotype threat that Steele and Aronson tried to access. Boost validity, have repeated trials as study is highly replicable. Can also be done with many universities, while allowing African Americans and White Americans the opportunity to take the test twice.