History Test One (columbian exchange)

Potosí mines

Who: Indigenous and African laborers under Spanish rule |

What: World’s largest silver mines | Where: Potosí, Bolivia |

When: Discovered 1545 |

Why: Spain wanted silver to fund empire and trade |

How: Forced labor through the mita system in brutal conditions |

So What: Fueled global economy but devastated Andean populations

Pieces of eight

Who: Minted by Spanish authorities, used by merchants worldwide |

What: Silver coins (global currency) |

Where: Mined in Potosí/Mexico; circulated in Europe, Americas, Africa, Asia |

When: 16th–18th centuries |

Why: Needed standardized currency for expanding global trade |

How: Mass production from New World silver mines |

So What: First global currency; linked economies and influenced modern money

Mit’a system (silver mining)

Who: Indigenous communities under Spanish control |

What: Rotational labor turned into forced mining system |

Where: Mines like Potosí, Bolivia |

When: 1500s (colonial era) |

Why: Spain sought steady labor for silver extraction |

How: Drafted men into dangerous, often deadly work |

So What: Destroyed native communities; example of colonial exploitation

Manila Galleons

Who: Spanish crown, Asian and American traders |

What: Trans-Pacific trade ships |

Where: Acapulco (Mexico) ↔ Manila (Philippines) |

When: 1565–1815 |

Why: Spain needed access to Asian luxury goods |

How: Annual fleets carried silver west, goods east |

So What: Linked Americas and Asia; early global trade network

Túpac Amaru II

Who: José Gabriel Condorcanqui (Indigenous leader) |

What: Rebellion leader against Spanish rule |

Where: Peru, Andes region |

When: 1780–1783 |

Why: Anger at mita system, high taxes, corruption |

How: Mobilized Indigenous and mestizo communities |

So What: Largest anti-colonial uprising before independence; inspired later leaders

Simón Bolívar

Who: Venezuelan military leader ('The Liberator') |

What: Led independence movements |

Where: Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia |

When: Early 1800s |

Why: Inspired by Enlightenment and desire for independence |

How: Organized military campaigns across South America |

So What: Ended Spanish rule in much of Latin America; symbol of nationalism

Creole

Who: People of European descent born in the Americas |

What: Colonial social class distinct from peninsulares |

Where: Spanish America |

When: 16th–19th centuries |

Why: Excluded from high offices despite wealth |

How: Over time, resentment fueled their push for leadership |

So What: Became central leaders of independence movements

Mercantilism

Who: European monarchies and empires |

What: Economic system maximizing state wealth |

Where: Europe and its colonies |

When: 16th–18th centuries |

Why: Belief that colonies existed to enrich the mother country |

How: Enforced monopolies, restricted colonial industries, controlled trade |

So What: Structured global trade but fueled colonial resentment

Encomienda system

Who: Spanish settlers and Indigenous laborers |

What: Colonial labor and tribute system |

Where: Caribbean, then broader Americas |

When: Early 1500s onward |

Why: Spain wanted labor and tribute from Indigenous people |

How: Settlers 'protected' natives but exploited them for work |

So What: Symbol of violent exploitation in early colonization

Mestizo

Who: People of mixed European and Indigenous ancestry |

What: A major colonial social class |

Where: Spanish America |

When: Emerged 16th century onward |

Why: Result of intermarriage and colonial mixing |

How: Adopted both Spanish and Indigenous cultures |

So What: Created new cultural identities; blurred racial lines in colonies

Treasure Fleet

Who: Ming dynasty, led by Admiral Zheng He |

What: Large naval expeditions |

Where: Indian Ocean, SE Asia, Middle East, Africa |

When: 1405–1433 | Why: Project Chinese power, expand trade, establish tribute |

How: Hundreds of massive ships carried soldiers, goods, and envoys |

So What: Showed China’s global influence before turning inward

Zheng He

Who: Muslim admiral and eunuch under Ming emperor Yongle |

What: Commander of Treasure Fleets |

Where: Voyages to SE Asia, India, Persian Gulf, East Africa |

When: 1405–1433 |

Why: Expand China’s prestige and diplomatic ties |

How: Led 7 major voyages with large fleets |

So What: Showed China’s naval power before withdrawing from exploration

Treaty of Tordesillas

Who: Spain, Portugal, Pope |

What: Treaty dividing non-European world |

Where: Atlantic Ocean, newly discovered lands |

When: 1494 |

Why: Resolve rivalry over overseas expansion |

How: Drew a line of demarcation (Spain west, Portugal east) |

So What: Ignored Indigenous peoples; shaped European empires’ growth

Magellan Voyages

Who: Ferdinand Magellan (Portuguese explorer for Spain) |

What: First circumnavigation of the globe |

Where: Across Atlantic, Pacific, Indian Oceans |

When: 1519–1522 |

Why: Seek westward route to Asia |

How: Fleet completed voyage after Magellan’s death |

So What: Proved Earth’s roundness; linked oceans; expanded trade routes

Line of Demarcation

Who: Pope Alexander VI, Spain, Portugal |

What: Boundary dividing new lands |

Where: Atlantic Ocean |

When: 1493 (formalized 1494) |

Why: Prevent disputes over discoveries |

How: Spain received west, Portugal east |

So What: Institutionalized rivalry; shaped colonial patterns

Ptolemaic Maps

Who: Claudius Ptolemy, later Renaissance mapmakers |

What: Maps based on Geographia |

Where: Europe |

When: Rediscovered in Renaissance |

Why: Provided framework for explorers like Columbus |

How: Depicted small Earth, centered on Europe, no Americas |

So What: Guided exploration despite major inaccuracies

Hacienda System

Who: Spanish colonists, Indigenous/mestizo laborers |

What: Large agricultural estates |

Where: Spanish America |

When: 16th century onward |

Why: Provide food and goods for local/export markets |

How: Relied on coerced or dependent labor |

So What: Maintained inequality; shaped rural economies for centuries

Peons (hacienda)

Who: Indigenous and mestizo laborers |

What: Debt-bound workers on haciendas |

Where: Spanish America |

When: 16th century onward |

Why: Economic dependency tied them to estates |

How: Debt cycles and legal restrictions |

So What: Exploited rural poor; ensured hacienda productivity

Peninsulares

Who: Spanish-born colonists |

What: Highest social/political class |

Where: Spanish America |

When: 16th–19th centuries |

Why: Controlled top offices and privileges |

How: Migration from Spain to colonies |

So What: Created resentment among Creoles; fueled independence

Columbian Exchange

Who: Europeans, Indigenous peoples, Africans |

What: Exchange of crops, animals, diseases, people |

Where: Old World ↔ New World |

When: After 1492 |

Why: Contact between Europe and Americas |

How: Crops, animals, disease spread rapidly |

So What: Transformed diets, populations, economies; enabled European dominance

Capitalism

Who: Merchants, investors, states |

What: Economic system based on private profit |

Where: Europe (spread globally) |

When: Early modern period |

Why: Expansion of trade, joint-stock companies, silver flows |

How: Investment, innovation, risk-taking |

So What: Replaced feudal/mercantilist systems; laid foundation for modern economy

Christopher Columbus

Who: Genoese sailor for Spain |

What: Explorer who crossed Atlantic |

Where: Caribbean (thought it was Asia) |

When: 1492 | Why: Find new route to Asia |

How: Sponsored by Ferdinand & Isabella; four voyages |

So What: Began lasting European colonization; Columbian Exchange

Casta system

Who: Spanish authorities and colonial populations |

What: Racial hierarchy |

Where: Spanish America |

When: 16th–18th centuries |

Why: Classify mixed ancestry and maintain order |

How: Categories like mestizo, mulatto, etc. |

So What: Institutionalized racism; reinforced Spanish dominance

King Afonso of Kongo

Who: Nzinga Mbemba (Afonso I), ruler of Kongo |

What: African king, Christian convert |

Where: Central Africa (Kongo) |

When: Early 1500s |

Why: Wanted alliance and trade with Portuguese but opposed slavery |

How: Wrote letters to Portuguese king protesting slave trade |

So What: Example of African resistance undermined by Atlantic slavery