Psych Chapter 1

What is psychology?

The scientific study of mind and behavior. Broader and more evidence-based than popular portrayals. Focuses on critical thinking, observation, and measurement.

What is psychological science?

Psychology is a scientific discipline. Uses empirical methods, builds on prior research, and aims to avoid biases.

What makes psychology “summative”?

It builds on prior studies and knowledge, integrating findings from multiple perspectives to refine understanding. 

What are two common cognitive biases that threaten psychological research?

Overconfidence Effect: overestimating accuracy of one’s knowledge. Confirmation bias: seeking evidence that supports one’s hypothesis while ignoring contradictory data. 

Why is critical thinking important in psychology? 

It helps evaluate claims, identify biases, separate opinion from evidence, and avoid being misled by pseudoscience or media hype.

4 questions to ask to help how psychology can help us evaluate information in the news?

Who is reporting? Is the source credible? is it backed by empirical evidence? Could there be bias? 

What is structuralism?

School of scientific approach to psychology that analyzed the mind’s structure by breaking mental processes into basic components using introspection. 

What is functionalism?

School of scientific approach to psychology that studied how mental abilities function to help individuals adapt to environments, influenced by evolutionary perspective. 

What was Freud’s contribution to psychology?

Developed therapeutic techniques for psychological disorders (psychotherapy, psychoanalysis), laying groundwork for clinical psychology.

What is the difference between clinical and scientific psychology?

Clinical: focuses on treatment of disorders. Scientific: focuses on studying psychological processes systematically. 

What does it mean for research to be empirical?

Based on systematic observation, measurement, and evidence (e.g., brain scans during tasks.)

What is the difference between evidence and opinion?

Evidence is a body of facts or observations supporting a conclusion; opinion is a belief without empirical support.

What is pseudoscience in psychology?

Claims presented as scientific but lacking empirical evidence or falsifiability. (e..g., astrology, “power posing”.)

Why is diversity important in psychology research?

Increases accuracy, avoids bias from narrow samples, and ensures findings generalize across populations. 

What does WEIRD stand for in research sampling?

Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, Democratic. Overrepresented in studies, creating bias. 

What are cross-cultural studies and why are they important?

Studies comparing people from different cultures to reveal universal vs. culture-specific aspects of behavior. 

What does the evolutionary perspective study?

Adaptive functions of behavior shaped by natural selection. Looks for human universals (e.g., basic emotions). 

What does the cultural perspective study?

How cultural normscand contexts shape thought, emotion, and behavior.

Example of cultural psychology in practice?

Expressions of grief: some cultures encourage outward expression, others value reserved responses. 

What does the cognitive perspective study?

Mental processes such as perception, learning, memory, thought, language, and creativity. 

What metaphor is often used in cognitive psychology?

The computer metaphor: comparing mental processes to input, storage, and processing functions of a computer.

What does the emotional perspective study?

How emotions influence decision-making, behavior, motivation, and social relationships.

How are cognition and emotion connected?

Both can operate consciously and unconsciously, shaping thought, decision-making, and well-being. 

What does the biological/neuroscience perspective study? 

Biological bases of thought and behavior, including brain areas, hormones, genetics, and neural activity. 

Example of biological psychology in practice?

Studying the hippocampus’s role in memory formation, hor how stress hormones influence decision-making. 

What does the developmental perspective study?

How people change physically, cognitively, socially, and emotionally throughout life.

What does the personality perspective study?

Stable traits and patterns of behavior that are consistent across time and situations. 

What does the social perspective study?

How immediate social contexts influence thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.

Example of social psychology in practice?

Studying how conformity pressures affect decision-making in groups.

What does the clinical perspective study?

The causes and treatments of psychological disorders. Includes both research and applied interventions. 

How does clinical psychology differ from counseling?

Clinical psychology includes a research component focused on etiology and treatment, while counseling often emphasizes practical guidance.

What is positive psychology?

A field that studies happiness, resilience, well-being, and strengths to help people thrive, not just treat problems. 

What is learned helplessness?

A condition in which repeated exposure to uncontrollable stressors leads to passivity and depression. The origin of positive psychology research. 

What are 5 common themes across psychology?

1, nature and nurture interact. 2, behavior has universal and variable aspects. 3, conscious and unconscious processes shape behavior. 4, knowing normal vs. dysfunction helps us understand the mind. 5, applying psychology can improve everyday life. 

How does nature interact with nurture?

Genes provide potential, but environment shapes expression. Ex: experiences can alter brain structure (plasticity). 

Why is it important to study both universals and variations in behavior?

To distinguish traits shared across humans (e.g., basic emotions) from culture-specific behaviors (e.g., social norms) 

What role do unconscious processes play in psychology?

They influence behavior and choices even when we’re not fully aware of them. Ex: implicit biases in decision-making.

How can psychology apply to everyday life beyond therapy?

Improves study habits, decision-making, relationships, stress management, and critical thinking.

How does psychology contribute to critical thinking skills?

Encourages skepticism, evidence-based reasoning, and awareness of biases when evaluating claims. 

What is metacognition?

Awareness and monitoring of one’s own thought processes; improves self-regulation of learning.

What is an example of metacognition in studying?

Testing yourself on material instead of just rereading notes.

What is distributed practice?

Studying spaced out over time, proven to enhance long-term retention compared to cramming.

What is massed practice? 

Cramming study into a short time. less effective than distributed practice for long-term memory. 

Why is testing yourself more effective than rereading notes? 

Self-testing strengthens memory recall and reveals gaps in knowledge, while rereading can create false confidence. 

What is the role of collaboration in psychological science?

Involves working across diverse labs and perspectives to improve research accuracy and innovation.

What is the role of technology in modern psychology research?

Tools like brain imaging, online studies, and large-scale data collection enable more precise and diverse research.

Why is skepticism important in psychology?

Prevents acceptance of claims without evidence, encourages replication, and strengthens science.

What is the purpose of peer review in psychological science?

Ensures research is evaluated by experts, checking for validity, rigor, and methodological soundness before publication. 

What is an example of psychology applying evolutionary and cultural perspectives together?

Studying emotions: basic emotions may be universal (evolutionary), but how they are expressed varies by culture.