Final review (1-4) A and P

Anatomy

Study of body structures and how they relate to one another.

Tendon

Connects muscle to bone, enabling movement.

Ligament

Connects bone to bone, providing joint stability.

Sagittal plane

Divides body into right and left halves.

Parasagittal plane

Off-center sagittal division.

Oblique section

Cut made at an angle not 90° to the vertical plane.

Mediastinum

Thoracic region containing heart, trachea, and esophagus.

Abdominal cavity

Houses stomach, liver, intestines, spleen.

Ventral body cavity

Includes thoracic, abdominal, and pelvic cavities.

Parietal serosa

Lines internal body cavity walls.

Visceral serosa

Covers internal organs.

Dorsal body cavity

Contains cranial and vertebral cavities.

Peritoneum

Serous membrane lining the abdominopelvic cavity.

Thoracic cavity

Contains pleural cavities for each lung.

Pleurae

Serous membranes surrounding lungs.

Elements

Basic substances that can’t be broken down by chemical means.

Atoms

Smallest units of elements.

Compound

Two or more different atoms bonded together.

Chemical bonds

Energy relationships between electrons of reacting atoms.

Covalent bonds

Atoms share electrons; may be polar or nonpolar.

Ionic bonds

Transfer of electrons creating charged ions.

Exergonic reaction

Releases energy; catabolic.

Endergonic reaction

Absorbs energy; anabolic.

Solutions

Homogeneous mixtures with evenly distributed particles.

Colloids

Heterogeneous mixtures; particles not evenly distributed.

Mass number

Protons + neutrons.

Atomic weight

Average mass of isotopes.

Acids

Proton donors that release H⁺.

Bases

Proton acceptors that bind H⁺.

Salts

Ionic compounds that dissociate into electrolytes.

Neutralization

Acid + base → water + salt.

pH of pure water

7, neutral.

Carbohydrates

Sugars/starches (C, H, O in 2:1 ratio); main energy source.

Monosaccharides

Simple sugars like glucose, ribose, deoxyribose.

Disaccharides

Two monosaccharides joined together.

Polysaccharides

Long chains for energy storage (starch, glycogen).

Lipids

Include triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids, eicosanoids.

Triglycerides

Glycerol + 3 fatty acids; energy storage, insulation.

Saturated fatty acids

Single bonds, solid at room temp (animal fats).

Unsaturated fatty acids

Double bonds, liquid at room temp (plant oils).

Steroids

Four-ring lipids; cholesterol base for hormones and vitamin D.

Eicosanoids

Derived from arachidonic acid; regulate clotting, BP, inflammation.

Proteins

Chains of amino acids; perform structural and functional roles.

Globular proteins

Functional enzymes, hormones, antibodies.

Holoenzyme

Apoenzyme + cofactor/coenzyme (vitamin).

Nucleic acids

DNA and RNA; store and transmit genetic info.

Nucleotides

Monomers with base, sugar, and phosphate.

ATP

Adenine nucleotide with three phosphates; energy currency.

ATP breakdown

ATP → ADP → AMP releases energy.

Interphase

Cell grows, performs normal functions, prepares for division (G₁, S, G₂).

G₁

Growth and protein synthesis.

S

DNA replication.

G₂

Final prep before mitosis.

Mitosis

Division of the nucleus (prophase → metaphase → anaphase → telophase).

Prophase

Chromatin condenses into chromosomes.

Metaphase

Chromosomes align at cell equator.

Anaphase

Sister chromatids separate to poles.

Telophase

Chromosomes uncoil, nuclear envelopes reform.

Cytokinesis

Cytoplasm divides, forming two daughter cells.

DNA replication

Copying of DNA before division.

Helicase

Unwinds DNA strands.

DNA ligase

Joins Okazaki fragments.

Replication fork

Site where DNA strands separate.

Transcription

DNA template used to synthesize RNA.

Translation

mRNA decoded to build proteins at ribosomes.

Codon

Three-base mRNA sequence coding for one amino acid.

Anticodon

Three-base tRNA sequence complementary to codon.

mRNA

Carries genetic code from DNA to ribosomes.

tRNA

Brings amino acids during translation.

rRNA

Forms ribosomal structure.

Base pairing

(A) always pairs with thymine (T) via two hydrogen bonds, while guanine (G) always pairs with cytosine (C) via three hydrogen bonds.

Termination

Stop codon ends translation; release factor frees polypeptide.

Cytoplasm

Cytosol + organelles; site of most metabolic activity.

Nucleus

Control center containing DNA and nucleoli.

Chromatin

DNA + histone proteins; condenses into chromosomes during division.

Nucleoli

Produce rRNA and ribosome subunits.

Nuclear envelope

Double membrane with pores continuous with rough ER.

Rough ER

Protein synthesis and processing.

Smooth ER

Lipid metabolism, detoxification, calcium storage.

Golgi apparatus

Modifies, packages, and ships proteins/lipids.

Lysosomes

Digestive enzymes for waste removal and autolysis.

Peroxisomes

Contain oxidases/catalases; neutralize toxins.

Mitochondria

Powerhouse; site of ATP production.

Ribosomes

rRNA + protein; sites of protein synthesis.

Cytoskeleton

Network of microfilaments, microtubules, and intermediate filaments for structure and movement.

Centrosome

Microtubule-organizing center with centrioles forming spindle fibers.

Vesicles

Transport materials between organelles or for secretion.

Plasma membrane

Phospholipid bilayer controlling entry/exit.

Integral proteins

Span membrane; transport and communication.

Peripheral proteins

Attached to surface; support and signaling.

Symport

Two substances move same direction.

Antiport

Two substances move opposite directions.

Endocytosis

Cell engulfs material; includes phago- and pinocytosis.

Exocytosis

Vesicles fuse with membrane to release contents.

Transcytosis

Endocytosis + exocytosis across a cell.

Second messengers

Internal signals (cAMP, Ca²⁺) activated by G-proteins.

Tonicity

Solution’s ability to change cell shape via water movement.

Epithelial tissue

Covers surfaces, lines cavities, forms glands; avascular but innervated.

Basement membrane

Basal + reticular lamina; supports and anchors epithelium.

Simple squamous

Thin for diffusion; lines vessels (endothelium) and serous membranes (mesothelium).