Haitain Revolution, Industrial Revolution, and All echos of Revolution:

Bourgeoisie

Wealthy factory owners who own capital and control production.

Proletariat

Working class who sell their labor to survive.

Define socialism

An economic system where the government or community owns and controls major industries and resources for the benefit of everyone.

Capital

Wealth, money, machines, and factories used to produce goods for profit.

Vicissitudes

Ups and downs or changes, especially in the economy or market.

Commodity

A good or service made to be bought and sold for profit; Marx argues labor is treated this way.

Manifesto

A public declaration of beliefs, goals, and plans for change.

Capitalism’s fatal flaw (Marx)

It exploits workers and creates inequality, making the system unstable and unsustainable.

Why socialism is the final stage (Marx)

It ends class struggle by abolishing private property and exploitation.

Nationalism (definition)

Loyalty and pride in one’s nation.

Marx’s challenge to nationalism

Class struggle matters more than national identity; workers should unite globally.

Social Darwinism (Malthus)

The belief that 'survival of the fittest' explains social and economic inequality.

How Social Darwinists justified imperialism

They claimed strong nations and races were naturally superior, justifying racism and conquest.

First sentence of the Communist Manifesto

All history is driven by class struggle.

Labor as a commodity (Marx)

Workers sell labor like a product, making them vulnerable to wages, layoffs, and markets.

Proletariat growth (Marx)

Industrialization forces workers together, increasing unity and class awareness.

Malthus’s 'unconquerable difficulties'

Population outgrows food supply, causing famine, poverty, war, and disease.

Spencer on government limits

Government aid interferes with natural laws and weakens society.

Spencer’s final argument

Poverty and suffering are necessary for human progress.

Industrial Revolution (time & place)

Began in Britain (1750–1900) and spread globally.

Energy shift of the IR

From local resources to fossil fuels and steam power.

Population growth (1400–1800s)

Increased from ~375 million to 1 billion.

Industrial Enlightenment

Faith in science, progress, and innovation.

Merchant capitalism

State-supported monopolies and trade privileges.

Role of global trade

Provided raw materials, wealth, and markets.

Artisan innovation

Early inventions came from craftsmen and workshops.

Natural resources in Britain

Coal and iron fueled industrialization.

Geographic advantages of Britain

Access to oceans and trade routes.

Colonial wealth

Colonies supplied resources and capital.

Cotton gin

Machine that made cotton processing faster and cheaper.

Inventor of the cotton gin

Eli Whitney.

Side effect of the cotton gin

Increased demand for enslaved labor.

British textile industry growth

Cotton use rose from 52 million lbs (1800) to 588 million lbs (1850).

Aristocracy (IR impact)

Lost power as industry replaced landownership.

Middle class

Supported free trade, liberal politics, and constitutional government.

Ideology of Domesticity

Women as homemakers, men as workers.

Laboring classes

Lived in crowded cities and suffered harsh conditions.

Urbanization in Britain

By 1851, most people lived in cities.

Robert Owen

Promoted humane factory communities.

Karl Marx

Criticized capitalism and inspired socialism.

Trade unions (1824)

Legalized to fight for better wages and conditions.

Labour Party (1890s)

Sought peaceful, democratic socialism.

Positive impact of the IR

Massive increase in production and material goods.

Negative impact of the IR

Pollution and environmental damage.

The Great Stink (1858)

Thames pollution forced Parliament to shut down.

IR as a 'two-edged sword'

Destroyed old lifestyles but created modern society.

Modern technologies from the IR

Electricity, plumbing, chemicals, refrigeration.

Coketown (Dickens)

Symbol of pollution, exploitation, and worker suffering.

Haitian Revolution (1791–1804)

Successful slave revolt that created Haiti.

Saint Domingue

Wealthy French colony based on enslaved labor.

Influence of the French Revolution on Haiti

Inspired demands for equality and rights.

Toussaint Louverture

Former slave and key revolutionary leader.

Outcome of the Haitian Revolution

Slavery ended; Haiti became independent but poor.

Latin American Revolutions (1808–1825)

Independence movements against Spanish rule.

Creoles

American-born elites who led revolutions.

Simón Bolívar

Led independence in northern South America.

José de San Martín

Led independence in southern South America.

Napoleon’s global influence

Spread modern and revolutionary ideas worldwide.

Capitalism

Private ownership of trade and industry for profit.

Socialism

Government control of production for equality.

Nationalism (19th century)

Loyalty to a nation and belief in popular sovereignty.

Enlightenment Revolutions

Focused on rights, ideas, and political change.

Industrial Revolution focus

Technology, machines, capitalism, and production.

Global impact of nationalism

Inspired independence movements worldwide.

Eli Whitney

Inventor of the cotton gin.

Charles Dickens

Author of Hard Times; criticized industrial pollution and inequality.

Eric Hobsbawm

Historian who said the IR destroyed old ways of life.

Define Manifesto

A public declaration explaining beliefs, goals, or intentions, often political.

Define proletariat

The working class who do not own property and must sell their labor for wages.

Define capital

Money, machines, factories, and resources used to produce goods and generate profit.

Define vicissitudes

Unexpected changes or ups and downs in life, usually difficult ones.

Define commodity

A good or service produced to be bought and sold in a market.

According to Marx, what is capitalism’s fatal flaw?

Exploitation, the bourgeoisie profit by paying workers less than the value of what they produce, which creates inequality, poverty, and class conflict that will eventually cause capitalism to collapse.

Why would the realization of socialism be the final stage in human progress?

Socialism would end class conflict by eliminating private ownership of the means of production. Without classes, exploitation would disappear, allowing society to focus on on cooperation, equality, and shared prosperity instead of struggle.

Define nationalism

Loyalty and pride toward one’s nation, often placing national identity above others.

How did Marx challenge the idea of nationalism?

Arguing that class identity is more important than national identity. He believed workers around the world share the same struggles and should unite across borders rather Han be divided by nations.

How did social Darwinists use theory to justify imperialism, poverty, and racism?

Argued that human societies follow “survival of the fittest.” They claimed wealthy nations and races were naturally superior, using this idea to justify imperialism, inequality, poverty, and racism as “natural” outcomes.

What does Marx mean in the first sentence of the Communist Manifesto?

“The history of all hitherto existing society is the history class struggles,” he means that conflict between social classes has driven historical change, such as masters vs. slaves or bourgeoisie vs. proletariat.

Explain the sentence about laborers being a commodity and exposed to vicissitudes of market.

He means that workers are treated like products that can be bought and sold. Their job and wages depend on market demand, so they suffer when the economy changes and have little control over their own stability

According to Marx, how does the proletariat strengthen as industry grows?

As industry grows, workers become more concentrated in factories and cities. This makes them more aware of shared struggles, allowing them to organize, unite, and gain collective power against bourgeoisie.

According to Malthus, what are “unconquerable difficulties” to human improvement?

Populations grows faster than food supply, leading to poverty, famine, and disease. These natural limits, he believed prevent society from achieving lasting equality or prosperity.

Why, according to Spencer, can government not “rightly do anything more than protect”?

Government intervention interferes with natural competition. He argued that governments should only protect life and property, allowing society to evolve naturally through completion and “survival of the fittest.”

Summarize/ paraphrase the meaning of the last sentence: “Nevertheless, when regarded”

Spencer is saying that while helping the weak may seem morally good, it actually disrupts natural progress. He believes that allowing natural competition leads to a stronger and more efficient society overall.

Abolitionist

An activist advocating for the complete eradication of slavery and emancipation of al enslaved individuals.

Sugarcane hazards

Physical risks such as cuts from sharp, burns from boiling vats, and infections from insects lodged in wounds.

Capitalist exploitation

A mode of production that maximizes planter wealth by extracting surplus value from permanently owned human workers.

1794 slave revolt

A massive insurrection in Saint - Domingue that grew from roughly 1,000 participants to about 20,000, targeting plantation and colonial authorities.

Free people of color (Affranchis)

Individuals of African descent who were legally free but faced restrictions on land ownership and political participation.

Cash crops

Agricultural products such as sugar cane and coffee that were grown primarily for export profit rather than local consumption.

Plantation economy

An agricultural system reliant on large estates that produced export crops using coerced labor for high profit margins.

Voodoo syncretism

The blending of West African spiritual practices with Roman Catholic elements to form a unified religious system among the enslaved.

Quota system

Daily production targets enslaved laborers, enforced without legal protection and punishable by severe violence

Colorism

A hierarchy within a racial group that grants preferential treatment to lighter- skinned members.

Léger- Félicité Saint - Honax

A radical French commissioner dispatched to Saint- Domingue in 1793 with a mandate to end slavery.

English Luddites

They revolted and broke the machines of the Industrial Revolution.

Pyramid of capitalist society

Hierarchy, working class at the bottom, highest on top.

Socialism

People welcomed socialism and wanted their society to grow.

Socialism

How people hated Britain for bringing these ideas of machines and how it was changing society.