HIST M10A Midterm ID's

W. E. B. Du Bois

19th century African American sociologist, historian, and Pan-Africanist civil rights activist. He was one of the founders of the NAACP and his book The World and Africa served much of foundations of Afrocentric historiography of the 20th century. Similar to modern Afrocentrists, Du Bois asserted that Egypt was a part of Africa. Furthermore, he recommended to consult the memory of elders (oral tradition) and examine existing written records when studying Africa.

Afrocentrism

A historiographical paradigm that developed in the 1960s. Afrocentrists assert that ancient Egypt was a wholly black, African, civilization. Furthermore, Afrocentrism understands Africa as the central of it’s own history and the history of the world. Afrocentrism is significant in countering a traditionally Eurocentric narrative and [empowering Africans]

Cheikh Anta Diop

20th century Senegalese historian and anthropologist. By asserting that ancient Egypt was a wholly black, African, civilization, he challenged Eurocentric Egyptology and shaped how historians see Africa’s role in human history

Adebayo Oyebade

20-21th century Nigerian historian and professor at the University of Tenessesse. In his publication The Study of Africa in Historical Perspective, Adeboye challenges Eurocentric notions of Africa as a “Dark Continent” while promoting a more inclusive historiography (i.e., including oral tradition, including African perspectives in learning African history)

African Language

Consists of 1500 languages(in 2020) and commonly split into four phyla: Niger Congo, Afro-Asiatic, Nilo-Saharan, Khoesan. Despite common belief, it is estimated that language originated in Africa during a dry period about ~15,000 years ago. The sheer diversity and long history of African languages is a testament to Africa’s rich history.

Scientific Racism

• A pseudoscientific idea predominant in the 18th and 19th centuries in Europe and the US which distinguished between “superior” whites and “inferior” blacks

• Used to justifying racial segregation and perpetuated untrue stereotypes and systematic inequalities

African Rivers

• Many rivers including the Nile, Congo, Niger, Zambezi, and Limpopo.

• Rivers are important in sustaining agriculture characteristic of settle lifestyles.

• No coincidence that many great African civilizations were situated along or near rivers. For example, Egypt along the Nile River and Songhay along the Niger river.

African Mountains

• Many mountains including Mount Cameroon, Ethiopian Highlands, Mount Kilimanjaro, Mount Kenya, and the Great Rift Valley

• Pastoralism sometimes seen in mountainous regions. E.g., cattle based pastorialism in mountainous Ahggar region of the Sahara

• Mountains also posed natural blockades. E.g., officials and king of the the solomonoid dynasty of Ethiopia from district to district because mountainous terrain made direct taxation difficult

Rift Valley

• over 4000 miles long, runs from the Hatay Province in Asia to Mozambique in SE Africa

• Divergent plate boundary will eventually split Africa into 2 continents.

• Homo sapiens likely began around the Great Rift Valley area ~200,000 years ago. Hence, it’s a hotspot for hominid fossils that provides rife information regarding our past.

Inter-Tropical Conversion Zone (ITCZ)

• A belt of low-pressure air near the Earth’s equator where trade winds converge. Migrates seasonally, affecting Africa’s climactic and rainfall patterns.

• ITCZ significant in dictating the wet/dry seasons in regions like the Sahel, leading to major droughts or floods affecting African people’s economies and food security.

Pastoralism

• livelihood system based on herding domesticated animals such as cattle, sheep, and goats

• found in regions like the Sahel, East Africa and the horn of africa

• especially important in semi-arid or arid environments in which farming is not an option, and good security when implemented in conjugation with farming.

• examples include the Khoisan and the people of Nabta Playa

Green Sahara

• Refers to a period in the African Humid Period (~11000-5000 years ago) in which the Sahara was much greener, lakes more much bigger (Lake Chad), and the Nile had higher flow.

• The Green Sahara allowed for the rise of many civilizations like Egypt and Ghana in what is currently much harder to inhabit. Waning of the Green Sahara

• So, deserted cities today like Awdughust in modern day Mauritania used to be more wetter and rife with civilization.

Australopithicus Afarensis

• 4-3 mya. Fossils have been found of Ethiopia, Kenya, and Tanzania.

• brain 1/3 the size of modern humans. largely tool users. Bipedialism!

• Significant in that it is an intermediary step between ape and human in terms of human evolution and fossils have been crucial in understanding human evolution.

Homo habilis

• ~2.5-1.5 mya. “Handy man”. associated with Oldowon culture, bi-flaking stone technology.

• advanced cognitive abilities, pivotal step in human evolution.

“Lucy”

• Discovered by Donald Johanson 1973 in Ethiopia, most complete skeleton of Australopithicus Afarensis we have.

• ~3 mya. clear evidence of bipedalism. Significant in that it is an intermediary step between ape and human in terms of human evolution and fossils have been crucial in understanding human evolution.

Microliths

• Associated with the neolithic phase of the stone age and archaeological evidence throughout Africa.

• Tool associated with Homo sapiens. stone flakes reshaped into tiny points and blades.

• Aiding in finding food in that humans had sharper points for activities like hunting and digging.

Napta Playa

• ~8500 BCE in Egypt

• likely had cattle and goat domestication + one of the earliest evidence of pastoral society

• also known for having some of the first megalithic stone circles and evidence of astronomy

Ogun

• Ogun is a deity in Yoruba mythology revered as the god of iron, metalwork, and warfare.

• embodying creativity, technology, and justice

• as one of the most revered Yoruba deities, represents the cultural significance and vital role of ironworking in West Africa

Yoruba

• Group of Niger-Congo family and one of the official languages of Nigeria

• yoruba ethnic group life predominately wooded in Savanna regions of West Africa

• one of the primary groups involved in the bantu migrations

Dogon

• Dogon are an ethnic group (Niger-Congo) residing in the central plateau region of Mali

• extremely impressive knowledge of astrology (e.g., knowledge of the Sirius B thousands of years ago) that impress modern researchers in addition to impressive doors and keys as a source of security. illustrates African genius

Bantu Migrations

• Several waves: 1st phase circa 2000 BCE, 2nd wave 1000 BCE, 3rd wave 500-1000 CE

• southern West Africa to Central, Eastern, and Southern Africa

• b/c of climatic/environment shifts & demographic pressures

• brought Niger-Congo languages, displaced most hunter-gatherers, eventually supplanting them. brought institutions (matrilineal, leadership, rituals), domestication (e.g., guinea fowl), farming (yams, black-eyed peas), boating techniques, cultural traditions, crafts (metallurgy/iron!)

Nok culture

• Nok terracottas. produced by ppl in central N Nigeria. derivative of iron smelting technology. from 1500 BCE

• beautifully constructed terracota figurines

• significance: challenge the Anatolia narrative, impact on agriculture and weaponry

Djoser

• Ancient Egyptian pharaoh of the 3rd dynasty, ~2600 BCE

• Pharoah Djoser and his Vizier Imhotep, architect of the step pyramid (built 2630-2610 BCE) built by Imhotep which would mark the start of the pyramid age

• illustrate leap in architectural innovation of the time and centralization of state power

Imhotep

• architecture of the stepped pyramid (built ~2600 BCE)

• eventually deified by Ramesses II as a god of medicine

• Ancient Egyptian polymath who was the Egyptian chancellor to Djoser

• illustrates Egyptian genius

Iretrau

• God’s Wife of Amun. Only known female position of the intermediary period of 3rd intermediary period. mother and wife of viziers. ~700 BCE.

• evidence of being a scribe. “seshet” mentioned multiple times in tomb. worked outdoors, buried not with her husband.

• broke gender roles and interesting case study of writing and woman

Seshat

• Seshat: goddess of writing, measurement, record-making, astronomy, architecture

• depicted with leopard skin dress. shows her antiquity (before Egyptians wore linen flax)

• central nature of worship indicates importance of literacy and interconnected of writing, math, astronomy, and architecture during the time of Egyptian civilization

• replaced with Thoth indicates rising patriarchy

Nubian Kingdoms

• South of Egypt near the modern country of Sudan. kingdoms of nubia included Kerma, Napata, Meroe, and Aksum

• ruled egypt during the 25th dynasty

• although had a lot of egyptian influence, they were unique as important source of gold, developed their own script, had traces of matrilineal descent, and would be center its own Christianity

Iron-smelting

• refers to the sophisticated art/science of extracting metals from ore, and casting objects from metal

• Originally believed to originated in Anatolia (1500 BCE), but evidence shows independently arose in Western and Central Africa possibly even before in Anatolia

• Iron smelting allows for the production of even stronger and durable tools and weapons, which was useful in allowing for superior agriculture and warfare.

Narmer

• Pharaoh Narmer. First pharaoh ~3100 BCE. Unified Upper and Lower Egyptian

• Narmer Palette depicts his victory and symbolizes the establishment of the First Dynasty

• start of the pharaonic era of Egypt setting the stage for the rest to follow

Agricultural revolution

• transition from nomadic hunter-gatherer societies to settled farming communities, beginning around 10,000 BCE

• independently arose multiple times in throughout Africa, for example, the domestication of wheat and barley in the Nile Valley

• led to surpluses which allowed for things like settlement, social stratification, culture, and specialization.

Hieroglyphs

• An ancient Egyptian script ~3200 BCE-300 CE that was often used for writing on monuments and ceremonies

• Overall, writing in Egypt was EXTREMELY fundamental in the rise of the Egyptian state as it allowed for things like accounting, storage of information, taxes, and better social organization

Hieratic

• Hieratic is a cursive form of ancient Egyptian writing derived from hieroglyphs ~3200 BCE. In contrast to hieroglyphs, more widely used overall in common documents. (much faster to write)

• Overall, writing in Egypt was EXTREMELY fundamental in the rise of the Egyptian state as it allowed for things like accounting, storage of information, taxes, and better social organization

Papyrus

• earliest date of the papyrus scroll 3200 BCE, coincides with rise of Egyptian state

• Papyrus stems useful for crafting and construction, papyrus piths could be used to easily make lightweight papyrus paper! vs unwieldy clay tablets of the Mesopotamians

• Overall, writing in Egypt was EXTREMELY fundamental in the rise of the Egyptian state as it allowed for things like accounting, storage of information, taxes, and better social organization

Thebes

• today’s Luxor. one of the earliest Egyptian cities that’s been in habitation since 3200 BCE

• served as the capital during the Middle and New Kingdoms, it was a religious and political hub. site of the temple complex of Karnak

• reflective of Egypt’s rich cultural and societal history

Nubian pharaohs

• ruled in 25th dynasty. overthrown after Assyrian invasion and Nubians would retreat South to Meroe

• in modern times, emphasis on “black” nubians has been unhelpful in understanding social dynamics of egypt/nubia

Garamantes

• 1st trans-saharan trading nation. beginning of what would be a deep trade of sub-Sahara Africa and the Mediterraneans ~500BCE-500 CE. worked together with the Romans for trans-saharan trade until ~100 CE when fought back.

• likely ancestors of the Tuareg and spoke Tamazight. thrived in the Fezzan region of modern Libya.

Meroe

• 400 BCE-300 CE. after Assyrian invasion of Nubian Egypt.

• originally very Egyptian but soon become its own culture. developed their own alphabetic script (Meroitic). own gods (Apedemek, lion god). distinct art/architecture.

• Iron industry

• heavily involved in red sea trading with Egypt and Mediterranean

• declined after 300s invasion of the Kingdom of Aksum

Ghana/Wagadu

• of the Soninke people. unique art and architecture of painted houses.

• dominated S border region of Mauritania and Mali ~400-1200 CE

• political capital at Kumbi Saleh

• middle-man of trade between desert (main source of salt) and Bambuk (main gold mine). economic capital = Awdaghest, important center for trade.

Soninke

• Soninke are a West African ethnic group primarily associated with the ancient Ghana. Niger-Congo family group

• Legend of Wagadu (snake thing)

• unique art and architecture of painted houses.

Tuareg

• Tuareg are the quintessential Saharan nomadic Berber people, matrilineal unlike most Afro-Asiatic groups

• speak Tamashek developed their own Tifinagh script

• inhabited central and Southern Saharan and known for wearing a veil to cover the lower half of their face

• as nomadic travelers, involvement as traders in the Trans-Saharan trade and in addition need to move flocks, often brought them in contact/conflict with Northern Muslims and the Sahel and Sudan in the South

al-Bakri

• ~1000 CE. Spanish Muslim geographer. interviewed merchants and travelers to travelled the Ghana.

• Ghana did not have a written script. So, it would be through outside Muslim geographers like Al-Bakri in which we our modern knowledge of Ghana comes from.

• ne of the earliest written sources on the Ghana Empire and other sub-Saharan societies, providing invaluable insights into their economies, cultures, and political structures.

Aksum

• 100s-800s CE. Northern Ethiopia. known for monumental obelisk-like tombs

• long-standing trading and cultural relations with Egypt, Arabia, etc.

• Christianity under King Ezana. showcased religious diversity and unique Christianity still seen in modern-day Ethiopia

Ge’ez

• left to right, is an alphasyllabary (like arabic) system. basically old version of Amharic (most common language spoken in Ethiopia today)

• Ezana stone was a multi-scriptural stella with Greek, Ge’ez, and Sabaean, allowing scholars to interpret. documents king Ezana’s conversion to Christianity and conquests.

• Afroasiatic

Queen Eleni

• Muslim princess married off to Emperor of Ethiopia Zara Yaqub. ruled as Regent Queen on and off from 1468. Negotiated with Portuguese for assistance against Muslim insurgency.

• In a time of religious instability in the inside (debates between sects of Christianity) and Muslim threats from the outside, Eleni’s leadership was crucial in tumultuous times.

King Ezani

• Ezana stone was a multi-scriptural stella with Greek, Ge’ez, and Sabaean, allowing scholars to interpret. documents king Ezana’s conversion to Christianity and conquests.

• converted Aksum to Christianity 330 CE, which remains an important aspect of modern-day Ethiopia