PSCI 257: The Middle East as a part of the World Hierarchy

Orientalism

A project of knowledge creation which is based on superiority of the west and inferiority of the orient (anything non-western)

An act of dehumanization and persistent hegemony due to unquestionable institutionalized and textual knowledge

History, cultures, and nations are dehumanized, seen as irrational and unchangeable, and as an ‘other’ which is represented as a cultural, social, and security threat

Orientalism: British and French

British and French Orientalism which was established by their colonial presence, focused on direct imperial ruling and presence in the east

Was much more characterized by a ‘surveying’ of the land which was written for the understanding of a European audience (e.g. Napoleon in Egypt bringing scientists and architects and historians to record info about the country)

Orientalism: American

American Orientalism is more indirect, abstract, and politicized by the strategic ties between Israel and the US

Idea that because Israel is a self-declared ‘western state’ in the ME, there are greater ties between American interests and Israeli interests than with other Arab countries in ME

Thus the way in which Israel regards the whole Arab world as it's enemy, is imported into American Orientalism, and there's a sense that Arab struggle for national independence and Palestinians for national self-determination is seen as hostile and upsetting the status quo

Orientalism and Middle Eastern Regimes

Orientalism is internalized by the regime that then works hand in hand with core imperialist countries to ensure the orientalist viewpoint is sustained, and for regimes to stay in power (need for power, money, and support from core countries) 

Resistance will never come from the governing elite (too dependent on the core countries), but from the average people who will resist unfair structures of governance and try to build a better social contract for their nations 

Humanism

A counter project to Orientalism, based on civilized co-existence between different cultures within one polity. Understand each other not to control, but to co-exist and have mutual trust, which will enable them to live together in one nation without problem

Based on secular human agency: respects cultural and historical differences ‘no religion is better than the other’ 

Humanism is about the ability to use one's mind historically and rationally for the purpose of reflective understanding, and to build a sense of community

Major Events in Arab/Persian Gulf: 1953 Coup in Iran

UK with the help of U.S. CIA orchestrates a coup against democratically elected PM Mohammad Mossadeq, reinstating the pro-western Shah of Iran. Driven by desire to protect Western oil interests, as Mohammad nationalized Iran’s oil sector

Major Events in Arab/Persian Gulf: 1979 Islamic Revolution in Iran

An uprising that overthrew the Pahlavi dynasty and led to establishment of the Islamic Republic of Iran.

Sparked by widespread discontent with the Shah's autocratic rule, economic mismanagement, and the influence of Western culture.

Led by Ayatollah Khomeini, the revolution culminated in the Shah's exile and the establishment of a theocratic Islamic government. 

Major Events in the Arab/Persian Gulf: 1980 Iranian-Iraqi War (First Gulf War)

Iraq, under Saddam Hussein, invaded Iran, seeking to control the Shatt al-Arab waterway and other territorial disputes

Iraq thought Iran was too destabilized by political turmoil from their revolution that they would not be able to fight back

Iran resisted and halted Iraqi advances into the country, though there was no victor in the end

U.S. supports both sides to contain the conflict, even ignoring Iraq’s chemical weapon use.

Conflict seen as useful to bog down two hostile regimes and protect oil economy (also need to weaken Iran as it was now seen as an anti-western nation).

Major Events in the Arab/Persian Gulf: First Gulf War - Desert Storm (1991)

A US led military campaign against Iraq after their invasion of Kuwait, it was a victory for the US, and battered Iraq’s military and infrastructure

Sadam Hussein remained in power and this led to the US imposing sanctions on Iraq, leading to increased poverty, malnutrition, and lack of healthcare on the population

Major Events in the Arab/Persian Gulf: American Invasion of Iraq (2003)

America invades Iraq due to alleged ties between Sadam Hussein and Al-Qaeda as well as alleged weapons of mass destruction

The goal was to overthrow Sadams regime and capture him

US and UK forces were successful in this but it led to instability in the country that continues until this day, as well as widespread civilian casualties

World Hierarchy: Core vs. Periphery countries

Core: Core countries (USA, UK, Japan, France, Australia, etc) are those that enjoy a position of power in the world hierarchy, sometimes using their power against other countries  

Periphery: suffer from hegemonic countries exploiting their resources, and their sovereignty is subject to vanishment when core powers threaten to invade them or put them under pressure 

Major imbalance in economic, military, international power

Hegemony vs. Counter-hegemony

Hegemony: Countries at the ‘core’ typically present a more united front (dominance over others),

Counter-hegemony: whereas periphery countries will typically develop a more counter-hegemonic stance in order to change their nations standing on the world stage (critique and struggle against the dominant hegemonic powers)

Consequences of Western meddling in ME: Anarchy

Most of the regimes in the middle east are authoritarian, and even the ones changed after uprisings did not bring democracy to these countries 

They are dependant on the protection they receive from the core countries in order to stay in power without representing their people in any way (the core countries will usually help certain regimes stay in power if it protects their own interests in the region)

Consequences of Western meddling in ME: Instability

Regimes are provided with weapons which are used against each other or their own people

Governments are none-representative and rely on relationship with core countries, and because governments are non-representative, governments expect pushback and competitivity in the region between nations for the support of core countries

(working vertically (relationship with core nations) rather than horizontally (with each other))

Consequences of Western meddling in ME: Dependency

Regimes controlling the gov. are dependant on core countries, this puts the economy at risk as these nations take out loans from western countries, or rely on western aid, bringing both the regimes and the entire countries reliant on core countries 

These regimes have the authority to positively change things to a degree, but their main interest is usually to stay in power by oppressing their own people and serving the interests of the core countries

Middle East as Transmission Belts

Regimes are involved in exporting natural resources within rules rooted in imperial structures, while importing mainly weapons to protect from their own people and their neighbours 

The resources of the region are used in importing weapons and advanced technology that is not changing the positions of their countries in world hierarchies but protecting the regime

Middle East as part of Periphery: Foreign policy of Dependent States - Sovereignty vs Clientelism

Sovereignty vs clientelism: formal autonomy but real trade-off → regime survival prioritized over regional ambitions and nation development for average citizens

Middle East as part of Periphery: Foreign Policy of Dependent States - Bandwagoning

Middle Eastern states must acquiesce to the demands of the hegemon

e.g. 2003 Iraq War: publics uniformly opposed, all Arab regimes (except Syria) acquiesced

Foreign Policy of Dependent States Explanations:

1. Constrained consensus: shared Western education, economic interests, threat perceptions align government elites with core more than average citizens

2. Penetrated state: foreign envoys (e.g. US ambassador) function as de facto proconsuls influencing rulers

3. Omni-balancing: Regime aligns with distant power to manage internal threats; regime interest and sustaining power, not national interest

4. Economic dependency

Revisionist vs Status-Quo States

Status-quo bandwagoners: small buffer states (Jordan, Kuwait) with no capacity/interest to challenge core.

Revisionist “rogue” states: Libya, Iran, Iraq, Syria – some pursue “reverse omni-balancing,” appealing to domestic anti-imperialist sentiment

*Why? Prolonged/traumatic anti-imperial struggles (Egypt), boundary-frustrated identity (Syria), resource expropriation (Algeria) → revolutionary origins and revisionism