U4 AoS2 Psychology SAC (2026)

Mental Wellbeing

A beneficial mental state of mind in which a person realises their abilities, copes with the normal stressors of life, works productively and contributes to their community.

Levels of functioning. How does it relate to mental wellbeing?

your ability to met the demands of everyday life.

An individual who is ‘mentally well’ can typically maintain high level of functioning in each of these areas even when they encounter everyday challenges.

Resilience. How does it relate to mental wellbeing?

The ability to cope with and manage change and uncertainty.

People who demonstrate resilience adapt well to stressors and are able to restore a positive levels of functioning relatively quickly.

Is resilience a fixed ability?

Resilience is not a fixed ability that cannot be developed or enhanced.

• it is the product of a range of internal factors, especially our coping strategies and how we view and engage with the world

• it is also significantly influenced by external factors, particularly the availability and quality of social support resources.

How does mental wellbeing operate along a continuum?

Mental wellbeing is often represented along a continuum which shows that there are varying levels/degrees of mental wellbeing.

Mental wellbeing worsens from left to right there are no clear cut dividing lines between different points on a continuum.

An individual’s location on the mental wellbeing continuum may fluctuate over time depending on a range of internal and external factors.

Mentally healthy

being in a generally positive state of mental wellbeing and functioning well in everyday life.

Mental health problem

when a mental health concern interferes with our functioning but the problem is relatively moderate in severity and is usually temporary

Mental disorder/illness

a combination of thoughts, feelings and/or behaviours that cause significant distress and/or interferences with functioning effectively in everyday life (a diagnosable mental disorder is present).

Distinguish between internal and external factors which influence mental wellbeing. 

internal factors: influences that originate within a person.

external factors: influences that originate outside a person

Internal factors which influence mental wellbeing

Biological: genes we inherit, balance of neurotransmitters, nervous system functioning, hormonal activities, responsiveness to stress.

Psychological: ways of thinking, attitudes, social skills, prior learning, perception of ourselves, how we respond to and manage stress/make decisions/experience emotions/reconstruct memories.

External factors which influence mental wellbeing

Social: range and quality of interpersonal relationships, amount of social support you have, exposure to stressors, level of education, level of income, exposure to social stigma, cultural influences and traditions.

Difference between stress and anxiety

Stress occurs when a person perceives they cannot cope with a current stressor.

Anxiety occurs when a person perceives they cannot cope with a stressor that may occur in the future.

the relationship between stress and anxiety is bidirectional:

• stress responses can lead to anxiety

• anxiety can trigger a stress response

Phobia

an excessive and unreasonable fear of a particular object or situation, often leading to avoidance behaviour.

individuals with a specific phobia experience an acute stress response when they encounter their phobia.

is fear rational?

fear can be rational response when confronted by some things or in certain situations.

it can serve to protect us from harm when there is a real risk - in this way, ordinary fear may be considered adaptive and a part of good mental health.

however, a fear response by someone with a phobia is typically out of proportion to the actual danger posed by the object/situation and does no help us cope with the stressor.

Stress, anxiety and phobia on the mental health continuum

• Mentally health: Low levels of stress or anxiety which are appropriate to the situation & help you adapt to the situation.

e.g. able to function in society/no evidence of avoidance behaviours. 

• Mental health problem: Moderate feelings of stress or anxiety that impacts functioning moderately.

e.g. some social avoidance or absenteeism from school or work may become evident. 

• Mental disorder: High levels of  stress or anxiety that interferes significantly with functioning.

e.g. significant social avoidance behaviours and/or being unable to attend school or work. Diagnosis of specific phobia. 

What is a protective factor

a protective factor is something that enhances and helps to protect mental wellbeing. it reduces the likelihood that mental illness will occur.

Identify the protective factors using the biospychosoical approach

Biological: adequate nutritional intake and hydration, adequate sleep.

Psychological: cognitive behavioural strategies , mindfulness mediation

Social: supportive friends, family and community.

Adequate nutritional intake and hydration

Adequate nutritional intake and hydration means having a diet in which a person is provided with the appropriate nutrients and water of physical and mental wellbeing.

how does adequate nutritional intake relate to gut microbiota

Having an adequate nutritional intake ensures individuals obtain the necessary nutrients to support gut health by increasing the diversity of gut microbiota. 

A diverse gut microbiota can stimulate the production of neurotransmitters and neuromodulators which influence mental wellbeing such as GABA and serotonin.

When these chemicals are produced in the gut they can indirectly affect brain function by influencing signals sent to the brain via the vagus nerve - helping to reduce anxiety, improve mood and enhance overall mental wellbeing.    

Adequate sleep

adequate sleep varies dependent on a number of factors including age and individual needs.

• While 8 hours is recommended for adults some people function just as well with less.

• Equally as important as quantity of sleep is the quality of the sleep – deep sleep (NREM Stages 3) and REM sleep leaves us feeling rested and refreshed

How does adequate sleep relate to mental health wellbeing?

As we already know inadequate or poor sleep can adversely affect mental wellbeing by impairing affective, behavioural and cognitive functioning.

These side effects can affect our overall sense of wellbeing and may also impact our relationships with others, further compromising our mental health.

Cognitive behavioural strategies:

Help you identify, assess and correct faulty thought patterns (C) or problematic actions (B) that may affect mental wellbeing.

By using these strategies thoughts, feelings and behaviours that are unhealthy are turned into more positive and optimistic thoughts/feelings/behaviours in order to increase resilience and improve mental wellbeing.

These strategies are taught during cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) - however, you do not have to go to therapy to engage with them. 

Beyond Blue outlines the following strategies that can be used to identify and challenge negative, unrealistic and unhelpful thoughts. 

Beyond Blue outlines the following strategies that can be used to identify and challenge negative, unrealistic and unhelpful thoughts. 

• Strategy 1: Consider the evidence. If you find yourself thinking negatively about an event or situation ask yourself ‘What evidence do I have that this is actually true or going to happen?’

• Strategy 2: Is there an alternative explanation? Look for other explanations for events rather than self-blaming. 

• Strategy 3: What would you say to friend who is thinking like that? Act like your own best friend and say something helpful to yourself.

Behavioural activation

Behaviour activation involves identifying and scheduling activities that promote enjoyment or reduce stress.

The focus is on helping people develop specific goals and achievable plans that encourage them to regularly engage in mood elevating, positively reinforcing activities that enhance mental wellbeing. 

These can be as simple as going for a walk or calling a friend or practicing mindfulness meditation.

Mindful meditation

Mindfulness meditation is a type of meditation in which a person focuses attention on their breathing, whilst thoughts, feelings, and sensations are experienced freely as they arise. 

Mindfulness meditation is used to teach people how to slow down their racing thoughts, let go of negativity, and calm both their mind and body. 

It helps people avoid being distracted by negative or automatic unhelpful thinking and responses by learning to observe their thoughts, emotions, and other present-moment experiences without judging or reacting to them.

Support from family, friends and the community

can help maintain good mental health.

It is important that the support provided by family, friends and the community is authentic and energising. 

• Authentic = it is a genuine/real connection you can rely on in times of need.

• Energising = it provides you with the energy & enthusiasm to go about your day-to-day life (unlike relationships which leave you feeling drained and depleted). 

what happens to people who have social support?

• less psychological distress when dealing with stressful life events

• an increased ability to cope (aided by improved self-efficacy)

• a greater sense of identity and meaning in their life (which increases overall wellbeing).

In addition, those that have social support are less likely to engage in coping strategies that are harmful such as using alcohol or drugs.  

This increases resilience as an individual with strong social support is able to utilise and rely on others when faced with a stressor.

Sources of uncertainty

all measurements used in an investigation are subject to uncertainty and may have many potential sources of variation - this uncertainty extends. to all inferences and conclusions that depends on uncertain measurements.

The nature of human behaviour and mental processes measured in psychological often involves psychological constructs which, by their very true nature can increase the degree of uncertainty associated with such measurements.

Validity and uncertainty

When uncertainty exists in an investigation the validity of the investigation is reduced.

this may impact the internal and/ or external validity of an investigation.

Internal validity

A psychological investigation is said to be internally valid if it investigates what it sets out and/or claims to investigate.

• the accuracy and precision of the data collection methods

• appropriateness of the type of investigation design selected

• impact of extraneous/confounding variables on the results.

Lack of internal validity implies that the results of the study deviate from the truth and therefore no valid conclusions can be drawn.

Extraneous variables. Common extraneous variables

Any variable other than the IV which may have an affect on the DV.

• Non-standardised instructions and procedures

• participant expectations and biases

• Individual participant differences

• experimenter effects.

Non-standardised instructions and procedures. How can this extraneous variable be controlled?

When there are differences in the way an experiment is delved or administered to participants.

Any differences in the way in which an experiment is conducted may influence participants behaviours/responses (results).  

This extraneous variable can be controlled by standardising the procedure of the experiment for all participants (i.e. collecting data at same location or time of day, giving the same instructions to all participants, using the same experimenter to interact with all participants etc.).  

Participant expectations and biases. How can this extraneous variable be controlled?

When participants are aware of the true purpose of the experiment their knowledge may influence the result (this may occur consciously or unconsciously).

This can be controlled by using deception so participants do not know the true purpose of the study to reduce the chances of their expectations influencing the result OR by selecting participants who may have less knowledge and understanding of the psychological concepts/terms being studied. 

When is participant expectations and biases more prominent?

This extraneous variable may be particularly prominent when participants data is collected via a self-report. 

This data collection method is subjective and therefore prone to participant bias so may not be a reliable indicator of participants thoughts/feelings/behaviour.

To control for this more objective measurements should be obtained (if possible). 

Individual participant differences. How can this extraneous variable be controlled?

When two or more groups are compared participant variables such as age, personality traits, mood etc may affect the results.

Individual participant difference can be eliminated by using a within subjects design (or controlled/minimised by a mixed design) OR by taking steps to ensure that the groups being compared are similar in relation to the characteristics identified as potentially affecting the results.  

Experimenter effects. How can this extraneous variable be controlled?

When there is a change in the response/behaviour of the participants due to the experimenter’s expectations, biases or actions, rather than the effect of the IV.

this may be due to differences in the way the experimenter treats participants due to their own expectations of the study.

it could also refer to the way in which the experimenter collects and treats the data.

Like with participant effects this influence may be due to a conscious or unconscious bias. 

To control for this extraneous variable the person who interacts with the participants should be the consistent & either they should not be aware of the purpose of the investigation OR which participants are in the control and experimental groups (where practical).

Types of controlled experiments

Within subjects design: all participants are involved in both experimental and control conditions.

Between subjects design: participants are involved in either the experimental or control conditions.

Mixed design: Combines elements of the within and between subjects design.

Within subjects design

Participants would have their depression symptoms measured before changing their diet (= the control condition), then have their depression symptoms measured after changing their diet (= the experimental condition).

The same participants results before and after the diet intervention can then be compared to see if depressive symptoms were reduced after changing their diet.  

Strengths of within subjects design

Using the same participants in each condition means that individual participant differences are eliminated.

limitation of within subjects design

Participation in the first condition may affect behaviour while completing the second condition: due prior knowledge OR practice/boredom/fatigue (order effects)

Strength of between subjects design

Participants are less likely to have prior knowledge about the experiment which may influence the result.

prior participants in on condition does not affect the other (no order effect exist).

Limitation of between subjects design

Using different participants in each condition means that individual participant differences may influence the results.

Mixed design

A mixed design involves elements of the within subjects and between subjects design - as such it combines some strengths and limitations of each design. 

• A simple mixed design may test the effect of one independent variable at two time periods, such as through a ‘pre-test’ and ‘post-test.’

• A mixed design may also involve two independent variables, whereby one variable is tested through a within subjects design and the second variable is tested through a between subjects design. 

Strengths of mixed design

• Some participant variables which could affect the results are controlled by the within subjects design element (i.e. you are measuring the change that occurs within the same people before and after the intervention). 

• Participants do not need to be involved in both conditions which halves their participation time and lead to less drop outs (i.e from 8 weeks to 4). 

• Participants may just improve over time without any intervention - the between subjects design element controls for this by tracking another group at the same time without changing their diet.  

CONCLUSIONS - GENERALISATION 

Generalisation = a decision or judgment about the extent to which the research findings can be applied to the wider population from which the sample was drawn. 

To generalise the following conditions must be met: 

• the sample must represent the population (the larger the sample size the more likely this is to occur)

• confounding variables must not have affected the results (i.e. extraneous variables were identified before the investigation and controlled).  

• all measures used to collect the data must be valid 

If these conditions are not met then the ability to generalise the results + the studies external validity is limited.

Repeatability

Repeatability = the degree to which a research investigation obtains same/similar results when it is conducted again under the same conditions. 

These conditions include the same: 

• Measurement procedure

• Observer (researcher) 

• Measuring instruments 

• Setting/location

• Repetition should occur over a short period of time.

Reproducibility

Reproducibility = the degrees to which a research investigation obtains same/similar results when it is conducted again under changed conditions. 

These conditions include different:

• Measurement procedure

• Observer (researcher)

• Measuring instruments 

• Setting/location

• Time