psychology cognition

Perception

Process by our brain translate the information and give us the understanding of the world

Bottom up processing

Brain tries to make sense of the info by small details then going up to a complete perception.

Top Down processing

Brain start with the complete image and then try to make sense with small details

Selective Attention

Process of focusing on one specific detail and ignores the other details

Cocktail party effect

Focusing on a conversation while in a noisy environment

Inattentional blindness

Individual did not see what happened when their focus is on something else

Change Blindness

Not noticing the largest change in someone’s environment

Schemas

mental folder that organize and interpret information around us

Perceptual set

Tendency to notice some sensory feelings and ignore the other sensories

Gestalt Psychology

Our brain perceive the whole object or figures instead of the details

Figure Ground

Ability to see an object of a figure from surrounding

Binocular depth cues

Visual cue that requires two of our eyes to understand distances

Retinal Disparity

Each eyes see different information from the position of your eyes

Convergence

When our eyes move forward to focus on a closer object

Monocular depth cues

Understanding distance and space with one eye only

Relative Clarity

Depth cue where clearer objects are nearer than objects who are farther

Relative size

Visual cue that objects are larger when near but smaller if far away

Texture gradient

We perceive texture when we are nearer.

Linear perspective

Depth cue that make us see parallel lines seems to intercept

Interposition

one object overlaps on the other, making the overlapping object closer

Perceptual Constancies

ability to not noticing a change when there are change

Shape constancy

objects remains the same shape if viewed at other angles

Size constancy

objects remains the same size from our distance regardless of changes in distance.

Color constancy

perceiving colors of stuff from other lightnings

Apparent Movement

Sensing movement when there isn’t any.

Assimilation

Adding a new information in a schema

Accomodation

Creating or changing the schemas when there are new informations

Convergent Thinking

Focusing on one problem-solving solution to a situatiion

Divergent Thinking

Cognitive process to think of a creative idea by finding other solutions

Functional fixedness

cognitive bias that restricts a person thinking that it can be used in alternate ways

Algorithms

steps for a formula to solve for correct answers

heuristics

Shortcut to find the solution faster

Representativeness heuristic

Cognitive shortcuts where people judge on other people based on stereotypes

Availability Heuristic

A mental shortcut with thinking of an example when they see a topic

Mental set

Approaching problems in a certain way that worked in the past.

Priming

Giving someone a stimulus only to make you think a specific thing

Framing

Information shown in a specific way to influence your perception

Gambler’s fallacy

Bias that individuals thinks that the event that happened is caused by other events

Sunk-Cost fallacy

person puts a lot of effort into a project that is too hard to give up.

intelligence

ability to learn from experiences and solving situations

general intelligence

mental ability that helps with thinking on it

multiple intelligence

theory that suggest that there are more intelligence that humans have

growth mindset

belief that abilities and knowledge could be developed from experiences and dedication

fixed mindset

belief that intelligence cannot be changed but determined by genetics

Intelligence Quotient (iq)

intelligence measure that test their cognitive abilites by standardized test

standardization

policies and norms for taking a test

achievement tests

tests a person’s skill or level of knowledge

aptitude test

measures a person’s potential to learn and mastering skills and abilities

validity

a test ability to measure correctly based on their intention.

construct validity

checks if a test measure what they wanted

predictive validty

how well the test shows their future or behaviors

reliability

consistency in test results among different people and contestants

test-retest reliability

test consistency on the same group twice

split-half reliability

divides a test by half to see if the score are consistent and similar

flynn effect

trend that average IQ are increasing as time goes on.

stereotype threat

phenomenon where a person do worse on a task when they are focused on a negative aspect of a stereotype

stereotype lift

phenomenon that individuals do better based on a stereotypically advantage group from positive expectations.

memory

information that we had learned or take in that could be accessed

encoding

first stage that memory is transformed into a file that your brain can take in

storage

process of keeping info in your brain over time

retrieval

process of getting that memory back into our brain

multi-store model

describing memory as a system

• sensory memory, short term, long term

sensory memory

stage of sensory memory stored for a short time, retain impression from stimuli

iconic memory

sensory memory that captures visual image. precise copy of a visual scene

echoic memory

sensory memory that holds auditory information for 3-4 seconds

short-term memory

holds a small amount of memory for 15-30 seconds

long-term memory

stage of memory where you can hold it for a long time

working memory

form of short-term memory which is used for holding info and storing as long term or short-term

central executive

control center of a memory, helps with organizing and coordinating

phonological loop

component of working memory that helps you hold verbal or auditory information

visuospatial sketchpad

component of working memory. holds visual information for the brain

long-term potentiation (LTP)

increase in neurons signal transmission from activation frequently

effortful processing

type of memory skill that needs active brain work and attention for long-term memory

automatic processing

unconscious encoding skill about, where, time, frequency

levels of processing model

depth of an information is known on how well it was remembered

Shallow encodign

basic memory encoding that makes you memorize the information at surface-level

structural/phonemic

type of shallow processing that focusing on the physical characteristic of the info

deep encoding

processing information on it’s meaning and connecting to something

Chunking

memory strategy that groups info into a larger info.

categories

method of organizing that groups items by their relation

hierachies

organizing by ranking categories or levels

mnemonics

techniques used to improve memory by connecting the info you learned with an image.

explicit memories

involves conscious time to remember a fact or event

semantic memory

type of explicit memory that rememebers a general knowledge about the world

episodic memory

type of explicit memory that remembers personal experiences and events

autobiographical memory

memory about your own experiences in your own life

implicit memories

memory that does not require conscious thoughts to do an action

procedural memory

type of implicit memory that requries on how to do an action

prospective memory

remembering what to do (planned action)

massed practice

learning strategy that makes you study without a break (cramming)

spacing effect “distributed practice”

learning is more effective when you split session into separate parts

maintenance rehearsal

learning technique that requires reviewing repeatedly until you remembers it

elaborative rehearsal

memory technique by deeply processing information by adding meaning or connecting to existing knowledge.