Social Class, Ethnic, and Gender Differences in Education

Cultural Deprivation

W/C children use restricted code (limited vocabulary), while M/C use elaborated code (complex, abstract language). Schools operate in elaborated code, disadvantaging W/C pupils.

Douglas's View

W/C parents place less value on education, give less support, and visit schools less often. Parental interest and early encouragement are key.

Sugarman's View

W/C subculture values fatalism, immediate gratification, and present-time orientation. These values restrict educational success.

Criticism of Cultural Deprivation

Victim-blaming - assumes W/C culture is inferior rather than looking at structural inequalities.

Material Deprivation

Poor diet affects health and energy levels; impacts concentration.

Tanner's View

Cost of items (uniforms, books) is a burden for W/C families.

Palmer's View

Ethnic minorities more likely to face material deprivation. Poverty has a direct effect on educational attainment.

Cultural Capital (Pierre Bourdieu)

3 Types of Capital: Economic (Wealth, resources), Cultural (Knowledge, tastes, habits valued by school), Educational (Qualifications).

Sullivan's View

Pupils with greater cultural capital (e.g., those who read serious fiction) performed better in exams.

Labelling

Teachers see ideal pupil as M/C. W/C pupils labelled as less able/lazy.

Rist's Findings

Teachers grouped children based on home background rather than ability in kindergarten.

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

Labels → teacher expectations → pupil internalises → poor performance.

Rosenthal & Jacobson's Study

IQ test: those labelled as bloomers showed greater improvement due to teacher expectations.

Streaming

Schools do 'educational triage': focus on C/D borderline students (A*-C economy). W/C and Black pupils more likely to be placed in lower sets.

Lacey's Findings

Streaming → polarisation → pro/anti-school subcultures.

Hargreaves' View

Labelling and lack of group identity → boys form anti-school groups.

Habitus & Identity (Archer)

M/C values dominate school culture. W/C students develop 'Nike identities' to gain status, clashing with school expectations.

Symbolic Violence

Marginalises W/C identities.

Moynihan's View

Black lone-parent families = lack of male role model.

Sewell's View

Lack of 'tough love' and discipline in Black families.

Lawrence's Criticism

Underachievement due to racism, not culture.

Racism in Wider Society

Racial discrimination leads to social exclusion and poor housing.

Job applications

White candidates more likely to be invited to interviews than minorities.

Labelling

Teachers expect discipline problems from Black boys → negative labelling.

Pupil Identities

Ideal pupil = white, M/C; Demonised pupil = Black, seen as aggressive; Pathologised pupil = Asian, seen as conformist.

Pupil Subcultures

Black boys: rebels, conformists, retreatists, innovators; Most are conformists, but teachers stereotype all.

Institutional Racism

Marketisation = covert selection against minorities; Ethnocentric curriculum prioritises white history/language.

Feminism

Magazines now promote careers not just marriage.

Changing Aspirations

1970s girls wanted family; 1990s girls aimed for careers.

Employment

Equal Pay Act, more women in workforce → role models.

Role Models & Assessment

Girls better at coursework due to organisation.

Teacher Attention

Teachers interact more positively with girls.

League Tables

Girls seen as more desirable pupils → better opportunities.

Class & Gender

W/C girls gain status from fashion (symbolic capital), but this conflicts with school.

Boys' Underachievement

Literacy gap - influenced by socialisation.

Crisis of masculinity

Decline in traditional male jobs.

Tripartite system (1944)

Grammar, secondary modern, technical → reinforced class divide.

Comprehensives (1965)

Non-selective, aimed to reduce inequality.

Marketisation (1988)

OFSTED, league tables, parental choice → increased inequality.

Coalition (2010)

Free schools, pupil premium.

Privatisation

Contracts to businesses; 'cola-isation'.

Functionalism

Social solidarity, specialist skills.

Marxism

Education = Ideological State Apparatus.

Feminism (Heaton & Lawson)

Hidden curriculum reinforces gender norms.

New Right

Marketisation raises standards; private sector efficiency.

Research Methods

Primary vs Secondary; Qualitative vs Quantitative.

Key Factors in Research

Practical - access, cost, time; Ethical - consent, protection; Theoretical - validity, reliability, representativeness.

Methods in Education

Experiments - lab/field: rare in education; Interviews - structured/unstructured; Observation - covert/overt; Official statistics - e.g., league tables; Documents - school reports, letters, diaries.