Linguistic Mid Term

prescriptivism

the belief that there are “correct” or “proper” ways to use language, often enforcing standardized norms. Ex: correction of AAE in school systems

Etic vs Emic perspective

Etic is cross cross-cultural focus from an outsider perspective, while emic is an insider perspective

descriptivism

the study of how people actually use language, without judging certain forms as better or worse. Ex: study of AAE as a valid and grammatical form of language

standard & non-standard language varieties

forms of a language that are socially recognized as “standard” versus those considered informal or dialectal. Ex:

dialect

a regional or social variety of a language distinguished by pronunciation, grammar, or vocabulary.

methods in linguistic anthropology

research approaches for studying language in cultural context, including interviews, recordings, and participant observation.

participant observation

immersing oneself in a community to observe and participate in everyday language use.

ethnography

a detailed, long-term study of a group’s cultural and communicative practices.

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

an ethics committee that approves studies involving human participants.

Tuskegee Study

an unethical U.S. study of untreated syphilis that led to modern IRB and informed consent standards. They were not told of their condition

phonetics & phonology

phonetics studies the physical sounds of speech; phonology examines how those sounds function in a language system.

suprasegmental features

aspects of speech such as stress, intonation, and rhythm that go beyond individual sounds.

voice quality

distinctive characteristics of a person’s speech, such as pitch, resonance, or breathiness.

morphology

the study of how words are formed from smaller meaning-bearing units (morphemes).

bound & free morphemes

bound morphemes can’t stand alone (e.g., -ed); free morphemes can (e.g., walk).

syntax

the rules governing how words are combined to form sentences.

language ideologies

beliefs or assumptions about language and its speakers, often tied to social hierarchies.

iconicity

when a linguistic form resembles or reflects its meaning (e.g., onomatopoeia).

fractal recursivity

the projection of an opposition (like standard vs. non-standard) onto smaller or larger social scales. Example being white vs black english being seen as standard vs nonstandard

erasure

the process by which certain people or linguistic forms are made invisible or ignored in discourse. Native american language erased from schools

multifunctionality (R. Jakobson)

the idea that language performs multiple functions simultaneously. ex “let me see” keeps convo going and stalls

expressive

communicates emotion or the speaker’s inner state.

conative

directed toward influencing the listener.

referential

describe non present object or idea

phatic

maintains social connection or communication channels (e.g., small talk).

poetic

emphasizes form, rhythm, or style of language itself.

metapragmatic

language about language; reflects awareness of speech norms or effects.

communities of practice

groups formed through shared activities and mutual engagement in language practices.

Community of practice versus speech community

a broader group sharing a common language or norms of use.

features of human language

1. Recursivity - fit

2. Displacement & Abstraction - talk about non real things, or feelings

3. Productivity - describe anything, comprehend new things

recursive

the ability to embed structures within structures (e.g., clauses within clauses).

creative

the capacity to produce novel utterances never heard before.

productive

the ability to generate and understand an infinite number of new sentences.

linguistic relativity / linguistic determinism

the idea that language influences (relativity) or determines (determinism) thought.

Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

theory linking language structure with habitual patterns of thought.

strong form (deterministic)

language determines perception and cognition.

weak form (axiomatic)

language influences but does not dictate thought.

participation framework (Goffman)

the organization of speaker, listener, and audience roles in interaction.

speaker & listener roles

participants who produce and receive speech in conversation.

footing

the stance or alignment speakers take toward what they’re saying or who they’re addressing.

double voicing (Bakhtin)

when an utterance carries multiple voices or perspectives simultaneously. ex: “ms holly said…”

Peirce’s semiotics

theory of signs in communication. Signs are constant in language and appear in the listners head and such

icon

a sign resembling its object (e.g., a male for males bathroom).

index

a sign pointing to its object by association (e.g., smoke for fire).

symbol

a sign whose relationship to its object is arbitrary and conventional (e.g., words).

language acquisition as a sociocultural process

learning language through social interaction and cultural participation.

language socialization

how individuals learn social norms and identities through language use.

linguistic register

a socially recognized variety of speech tied to context or role (e.g., formal vs. informal). way lnaguage is adapted to surrounding (informal vs formal)

breach

a disruption in expected social or linguistic norms, revealing underlying rules.

novices and experts

language users at different stages of cultural and communicative competence.

monoglot ideology

belief that a society is or should be monolingual.

borrowing & codeswitching

borrowing is taking words from another language; codeswitching is alternating between languages or varieties within conversation.

mixed codes & translanguaging

fluid blending of multiple linguistic systems in practice, beyond clear boundaries. Using select languages interchangably such as hispanic

centripetal, centrifugal forces (Bakhtin)

centripetal forces push toward standardization; centrifugal forces promote diversity.

monoglossia & heteroglossia

monoglossia assumes one correct language; heteroglossia recognizes multiple voices and varieties.

truncated multilingualism (Blommaert)

partial competence in several languages shaped by unequal access to linguistic resources.

(unhelpful) metaphors of language loss

deficit-based ways of describing language shift (e.g., “dying” languages).

language shift

process where a community gradually adopts another dominant language.

ideologies in language shift

beliefs that influence whether languages are maintained or abandoned.

other factors in language shift

social, political, economic, or demographic influences on language change.

language ideologies

shared ideas about language that justify power relations.

iconization

linking language forms to perceived speaker traits or group identities.

erasure

ignoring linguistic diversity to maintain social narratives.

fractal recursivity

repeating ideological oppositions at multiple scales.

language revitalization

efforts to restore and sustain endangered languages.

emergent vitality

signs of growing use or cultural investment in a language.

cultural reproduction

transmission of social norms and hierarchies through language and education.

structure and agency

the tension between social constraints (structure) and individual action (agency) in language use.

non-anthropological approaches to language and gender

studies focusing on gender differences in language outside of cultural context.

female and male codes (e.g., hlonipha)

gender-specific speech styles or taboos.

variationist studies (e.g., Labov)

quantitative studies of how linguistic variation correlates with social factors.

deficit approach (e.g., Lakoff)

idea that women’s speech is less assertive or powerful.

difference approach (e.g., Tannen)

idea that men and women have different but equally valid speech styles.

performativity (J. Butler)

concept that gender is enacted through repeated linguistic and social performances.

cultural hegemony & hegemonic masculinity

dominant cultural norms that privilege male or powerful identities.

patriarchy & heteronormativity

systems that normalize male authority and heterosexuality as default.

intersectionality

how language and identity are shaped by overlapping categories like race, gender, and class.

asymmetrical binary

unequal oppositions (e.g., male/female, standard/non-standard) that structure ideology.

overt and covert prestige (Labov)

overt: recognized social status from standard speech; covert: hidden prestige within local or subcultural norms.

casual & careful speech

stylistic variation depending on formality or attention to speech.

Social Darwinism & Eugenics in Anthropology

pseudoscientific theories applying evolution to justify racial hierarchies.

cultural relativism (Franz Boas)

the idea that cultures and languages must be understood on their own terms.

social construction of race

understanding race as a social, not biological, category produced through discourse.

white public space

concept describing how whiteness is normalized as the linguistic and cultural default.

inner and outer spheres

domains where marginalized language varieties are used privately (inner) vs. judged publicly (outer).

direct and indirect indexicalities

direct links between language and identity vs. indirect associations shaped by ideology.

AAE, AAVE, AAL

African American English, African American Vernacular English, African American Language; systematic, rule-governed varieties.

Gullah

an English-based Creole spoken in the coastal southeastern U.S., influenced by West African languages.

Ebonics & Oakland School Board Resolution

recognition of AAVE as a legitimate language variety in education policy.

AAE verbal skills (e.g., playing the dozens)

forms of verbal artistry emphasizing wit and creativity.

rule-governed language, esp. AAE

all language varieties follow systematic grammatical rules.

copula (‘be’) deletion

grammatical feature in AAE omitting “be” where it’s predictable (e.g., “She nice”).

habitual ‘be’

AAE form marking repeated or habitual action (e.g., “She be running” = “She runs regularly”).

consonant cluster reduction

AAE feature simplifying final consonant clusters (e.g., “test” → “tes”).