Bio Midterm 2

What do paramecium have?

Self awareness; conscious choice

Invaginations

Indents in cells

Symbiosis

Two things living together; can be good or bad in biology

Endosymbiosis

Something taking another thing into its body (i.e. bacteria being engulfed by other cells and turned into organelles)

What does symbiogenesis mean?

Sym = same, bio = life, genesis = creation

* Same meaning as endosymbiosis

Difference between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells

Prokaryotic:

* older
* simpler, smaller
* no membrane-bound organelles
* flagella/fimbriae
* nucleiod region (no nucleus)

Eukaryotic:

* animal cells
* larger, more complex
* membrane-bound organelles
* nucleus

Ribosomes

Function: protein synthesis

Cytoskeleton

Provides shape and structure

Plasma membrane

Thin film surrounding cells; border guard that regulates flow of materials into and out of the cell

Plasma membrane’s structure

Phospholipid bilayer: contains phospholipids with a hydrophilic head and a hydrophobic tail (tails connect while the heads are inside and outside of the cell) with proteins embedded in it

Hydrophilic

Polar (likes water)

Hydrophobic

Non-polar (doesn’t like water)

Cytoplasm

Gel-like fluid inside the cell

Mitochondria

Cellular respiration; generates chemical energy needed to fuel the cell’s biochemical reactions

* inner/outer membrane
* Cristae
* Matrix

Prokaryotic cell wall

Capsule

Fimbriae

Nucleoid

Ribosomes

Flagella

Plasma membrane

Rough endoplasmic reticulum

Makes phospholipids that are inserted into the ER membrane; the attached ribosomes produce proteins

Golgi apparatus

Receives, refines, stores, and distributes chemical products of the cell (factory)

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

Synthesis of lipids

Nucleus

Stores genetic information

Lysosome

Breaks down stuff

Centrosome

Provides structure and organizes microtubules

Central vacuole

Storage

Cell wall

Provides structure, support, and protection

Chloroplasts

Produce energy through photosynthesis

Do individuals “stand alone?”

No

How many bacteria are there for 1 cell?

10

Why “get big?”

* Less chance of dying
* Able to do more
* Can’t be swallowed as easily

Takeaway from the Pando Aspen Grove story

The trees are all one organism, they’re connected

What does “pando” mean

“I spread”

What are we here for?

“To learn to enjoy more, and to increase in knowledge and experience.” -Brigham Young

What are our bodies made of at the atomic level?

CHNOPS (carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, sulfer)

Functions of carbohydrates

Store energy (short term and long term) and provide structural integrity

Cellulose

Long carbohydrate chain found in plants

Structure of lipids

Simple chain of carbons having a carboxyl functional group at one end

Lipids…

Do not dissolve in water

Functions of lipids

1. Long term storage; bonds are harder to break down than carbohydrates so it stores energy better
2. Structure: membranes (**separates the water within from the water without**)
3. Messengers: hormones

Fat has…

Twice as much kcal per gram than carbohydrates and proteins

Properties of lipids (fats, oils, and waxes)

* Have carboxyl functional group at one end
* Do not dissolve in water
* C, H, O, P

“Apparently so close in overall composition, but those ‘minor’ differences make female and male.”

Hormones: estrogen and testosterone

* similar molecules

Function of proteins

Structure (give things shape) and machinery (enzymes)

What can come from proteins

An infinite possibility of molecular forms from 20 or so simpler units

Two main types of proteins

1. Structural proteins (keratin, hair, collagen)
2. Enzymes

If one amino acid is changed…

The protein either stops working, works better, or stays the same

Proteins are a long chain of

Amino acids

Amino acids have…

An amino group and a carboxyl group with a side chain that varies

Alpha helix shape

Spiral shape (slinky)

Secondary structure

Beads that coil and make sheets

Tertiary structure

Random shape (balled up slinky)

Quaternary structure

Multiple balled up slinky’s

Enzymes

* Catalyze reactions in a controlled way
* We’d burn up if all the energy from reactions was released at the same time
* Enzymes = machinery

Function of DNA

Store genetic information

4 nucleotides in DNA

A, T, C, G

4 nucleotides in RNA

A, U, C, G

What causes the double helix shape?

Charges

The central dogma of molecular biology

“DNA makes RNA makes protein”

“I believe a leaf of grass is no less than the journey-work of the stars.”

Walt Whitman

How many bonds can C, H, N, and O make?

Carbon: 4

Hydrogen: 1

Nitrogen: 3

Oxygen: 2

Two types of carbohydrates:

1. Simple sugars: monosaccharides (glucose)
2. Complex carbohydrates: polysaccharides (long chain)

What are the polysaccharides talked about in class?

1. Cellulose
2. Starch
3. Glycogen
4. Chitin

Cellulose

Long carbohydrate chain found in plants (wood)

Starch

Carbohydrate found in plants (potatoes)

Glycogen

The equivalent of starch but for our bodies; for energy storage

Chitin

* Carbohydrate found in only a few types of animals
* “The crunch that satisfies” (stepping on a cockroach)

Functional groups of carbon bonds

Hydroxyl, carbonyl, amino, carboxyl

Hydroxyl group

Carbon bonded to one oxygen

* C-OH
* Found in alcohols and sugars

Carbonyl

Carbon double bonded to oxygen

* C=O
* Found in sugars

Amino group

Nitrogen bonded to carbon and two hydrogens

* C-N-H-H
* Found in amino acids and urea in urine from protein breakdown

Carboxyl group

Combination of carbonyl and hydroxyl groups

* OH-C=O
* Found in amino acids, fatty acids, and some vitamins

What does the emergent property tell us?

We can’t predict what’s going to happen when we take things apart and put them back together in a different way

Ionic bond

Bonding of two ions of opposite charges (second strongest bond)

Covalent bond

Sharing of electrons between atoms (strongest bond on living level)

Hydrogen bond

Weak attractions between partially charged atoms (weakest bonds)

Why is water wonderful?

* Polarity: H is positive, O is negative
* Thermal buffer: takes a lot of energy for water to change phases
* Cohesion: surface tension
* Solvent: water can dissolve
* Ice floats

How many bonds can carbon make?

4

Parsimony

Simpler is better

Eukaryotic cells

Plant and animal cells (has nucleus)

Prokaryotic cells

No nucleus

4 macromolecules of life

Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids/nucleotides

5 tools of discovery

1. Faith
2. Force
3. Consensus
4. Art
5. Science

What method did Doubting Thomas use to know that Jesus was resurrected?

Empiricism

Science differs from other discovery tools because…

It’s based on materialism, which can be good or bad

Science is…

Self-correcting, it has a way to detect when it’s being fooled, and ideas could be thrown out if new information provided more explanatory power

Age of the universe

13\.8 billion years

Age of the earth

4\.6 billion years

Age of earliest life on earth

3\.5 billion years

Age of earliest Homo sapiens

200,000 years

Characters vs character states

Characters are things like eye color, height, leaf shape, and character states are the specifics of those characteristics like blue, short, medium, needle-like, etc.

Linnaeus’s system

Taxon = classification unit to which organisms are assigned

* Mammalia is a taxon at the class level

Which direction does time travel on cladograms

From left to right because things diversify through time so things are older on the left and younger on the right

Sister species share a

Node

Why are there so many kinds of things? (DNA level)

A, T, C, and G can code for infinite different proteins

Why are there so many kinds of things? (atomic scale)

Carbon can make 4 sharing bonds

Why are there so many kinds of things? (cellular level)

Cells can be put together in lots of different ways

Why are there so many kinds of things? (carbohydrates)

Used for energy storage, structure, and protection