Chapter Four: Infancy and Developmental Consequences of Mental Retardation - Vocabulary Flashcards

Key vocabulary terms and definitions drawn from the lecture notes on infancy, MR definitions, diagnostic criteria, prevalence, associated syndromes, developmental theories, intervention, and policy.

Mental retardation (MR)

A developmental deviation characterized by subaverage intellectual functioning and adaptive deficits with onset before age 18; not itself a psychopathology, but increases risk for psychopathology and depends on adaptation to environment.

Intellectual disability

Contemporary term replacing MR; emphasizes support and functioning within specific environments; increasingly used alongside or in place of MR.

AAMR/AAIDD definition of MR (1992)

MR is present when intellectual limitations affect the person’s ability to cope with ordinary life in the environment; functioning depends on capabilities and environments; adaptation determines diagnosis.

Adaptive behavior

Skills used to cope with daily life, including personal self-sufficiency, community self-sufficiency, and personal-social responsibility; central to diagnosing MR.

Capabilities vs environments (AAMR model)

Two intrapersonal capabilities (intelligence and adaptive skills) and two contextual environments; functioning is the product of their interaction.

IQ cutoff for MR (AAMR 1992)

AAMR proposed an IQ of 75 or lower as the cutoff for MR; emphasis on adaptation to environment rather than IQ alone.

DSM-IV-TR criteria for MR

A: Significantly subaverage intellectual functioning (IQ ≤ 70); B: Deficits in adaptive functioning in at least two domains; C: Onset before age 18.

Levels of severity in MR

Mild (roughly IQ 50–70), Moderate (35–50/55), Severe (20–40/35–40), Profound (<25); levels reflect level of intellectual impairment and need for support.

ICD-10 vs DSM-IV-TR IQ ranges

Both systems classify MR with IQ-based ranges; DSM and ICD differ slightly in cutoffs and domain emphasis, but both require adaptive functioning context.

Prevalence of MR

Approximately 1–3% of the population worldwide; about 1% in the United States; prevalence varies by age, severity, and diagnostic criteria.

Gender differences in MR

About three times as many boys as girls are identified with MR; partly due to higher incidence of certain genetic disorders in males.

Socioeconomic status and ethnicity in MR

MR more prevalent among socioeconomically disadvantaged groups for mild MR; severe MR occurs about equally across economic and ethnic groups; environmental factors play a role.

Differential diagnosis: MR vs autism/PDD

MR can co-occur with autism; MR is defined by broad adaptive deficits, while PDDs have developmental disorders with distinct social-communication profiles.

Comorbidity in MR

MR increases risk for psychological disturbances; 30–50% have comorbid conditions such as ADHD, aggression, anxiety, depression; patterns vary by severity.

ADHD and MR

ADHD is 3–5 times more prevalent in children with MR than in typically developing children; higher in mild MR; lower rates in profound MR due to limited behavior repertoire.

PL 94-142 / Education for All Handicapped Children Act (1975)

Federal law guaranteeing free appropriate public education for handicapped children; introduced IEPs and least restrictive environment (LRE).

Individualized Education Program (IEP)

A plan for each child with special needs outlining present level, goals, services, and evaluation; involves parents and professionals.

Least Restrictive Environment (LRE) / Mainstreaming

Education in the least restrictive setting; inclusion in regular classrooms with supports; enhances social and academic outcomes but may increase teasing risk.

Abecedarian Project

Early intensive preschool program showing ~20 IQ point gains by age 3 for children of mothers with low IQs; long-term benefits in reading and college attendance.

Bayley Scales

Bayley Scales of Infant Development used for assessing infants and toddlers (1–3 years) to identify risk for developmental delays and MR patterns.

Down syndrome (trisomy 21)

Genetic MR cause with three copies of chromosome 21; prevalence ~1–1.5 per 1,000 births; mean IQ around 50; relatively strong social skills but language deficits and health risks.

Fragile X syndrome

X-linked MR syndrome more severe in males; cognitive impairment varies; hyperactivity and autistic-like features; brain volume changes and pruning differences.

Prader-Willi syndrome

Chromosome 15 abnormality causing mild MR; early life hyperphagia and obesity tendencies; unique puzzle-solving strengths; variable cognitive profile.

Familial (familial-cultural) MR

MR with no clear biological cause; usually mild and linked to environmental risks and family factors; genetic and environmental contributions are implicated.

Sameroff risk-factor framework

Ten risk factors (e.g., low SES, maternal mental illness) predicting lower IQ; cumulative risks matter; authoritative parenting can offset risks.

Stability and change in MR

Course varies by severity and type; mild MR may show IQ changes; Down syndrome shows decelerating IQ gains; Fragile X shows early gains then plateau.

Stage-salient issues in infancy with MR

Infant attachment, self-regulation, and exploration may be delayed; Bayley scales help assess early development; parental grief influences outcomes.

Similar Sequencing Hypothesis (Zigler/Hodapp)

MR children progress through the same cognitive stages in the same order as nonretarded children, though more slowly.

Similar Structure Hypothesis

MR children, matched for mental age, perform at similar levels to typically developing peers across many tasks, except in some information-processing areas for organic MR.

Attention to relevant cues (discrimination learning)

MR children often fixate on irrelevant cues (e.g., position) and require breaking the irrelevant set to learn; once cue is identified, they learn rapidly.

Memory and rehearsal in MR

Short-term memory may be intact; long-term memory and rehearsal strategies are often impaired or underutilized but trainable.

Clustering and mediation

Memory strategies (clustering, mediational strategies) are learned less spontaneously by MR individuals but can be taught to improve recall.

Metamemory

Awareness of memory processes; improves with age in MR, but understanding of study-time effects and relearning remains variable.

Problem solving in MR

MR children often fail to generate relevant hypotheses; given information, they can use it but may struggle with complex tasks.

Generalization in MR

MR individuals often do not generalize learned solutions to new but similar problems; explicit teaching of transfer is often required.

Dependency/out-directedness

MR children show greater reliance on adults and external guidance; lower mastery motivation and self-reliance.

Self-concept in MR

Less differentiated self-concept with fewer domains; lower ideal self due to more failures and external judgments; motivational dynamics differ.

Family stress model (Double ABCX)

Double ABCX: A (child characteristics), B (resources), C (perception) interact to produce X (stress); development allows for changing dynamics over time.

Inclusion and social development

Social integration through mainstreaming affects friendships and social skills; MR children often face teasing and rejection but can benefit from inclusive settings.

Prevention strategies (primary/secondary/tertiary)

Primary prevention: prenatal care and health education; secondary: screening and early intervention; tertiary: treatment of existing MR and related conditions.

Interventions: Behavior modification

Operant-based methods to increase desired behaviors and reduce problematic ones; highly effective, with parental involvement and broader applicability.

Evidence on behavior modification effectiveness

Meta-analysis indicates ~26.5% very effective, 47.1% fairly effective, 26% questionable/poor; contingencies and reinforcement drive outcomes.

Cultural and policy context in MR

Education and disability policy (e.g., inclusion, IEPs) and societal attitudes influence identification, services, and outcomes for MR individuals.