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Jacobin Club

A political club in revolutionary France whose members were well-educated radical republicans.

Estates General

A legislative body in pre-revolutionary France made up of representatives of the clergy, nobility, and everyone else; called into session in 1789.

Estates

The three legal categories of France’s inhabitants: the clergy, the nobility, and the commoners.

National Assembly

The first French revolutionary legislature, consisting mainly of representatives of the third estate, in session from 1789 to 1791.

Great Fear

The fear of noble reprisals against peasant uprisings that caused panic and further revolt in the French countryside.

Bourgeoisie

The middle class in France, who had no privileges but gained influence during the French Revolution.

Second Revolution

The phase of the French Revolution from 1792 to 1795 marked by the fall of the French monarchy and increased radical politics.

Girondists

A moderate political group that sought control of the French National Convention in 1793.

The Mountain

The radical faction within the French National Convention led by Robespierre, which seized legislative power in 1793.

Sans-culottes

The laboring poor of Paris; known for wearing trousers instead of knee breeches, representing the militant radicals of the city.

Reign of Terror

The period from 1793 to 1794 when Robespierre’s Committee of Public Safety executed thousands of suspected traitors.

Congress of Vienna

A meeting of European nations in 1814 to establish peace and stability after the defeat of Napoleon Bonaparte.

Industrial Revolution

A term first coined in 1799 describing the wave of major inventions and economic expansion in Britain during the late 18th century.

Spinning jenny

An inexpensive, hand-powered spinning machine invented by James Hargreaves in 1765.

Water frame

A spinning machine developed by Richard Arkwright that used water power and had a high capacity for spindles.

Steam engines

Inventions by Savery and Newcomen that burned coal to produce steam; Watt developed a more efficient version in 1769.

Rocket

The effective locomotive invented by George Stephenson, first tested in 1829, capable of reaching speeds of 35 miles per hour.

Crystal Palace

The site of the Great Exhibition of 1851 in London, notable for its architectural design made entirely of glass and iron.

Iron law of wages

David Ricardo's theory stating that population growth pressure keeps wages at the subsistence level.

Tariff protection

A government method of supporting its economy by imposing high taxes on imported goods.

Factory Acts

Laws passed in England that limited working hours for child laborers and established hygiene and safety standards.

Separate spheres

A social model that defined gender roles, with women as homemakers and men as wage earners.

Mines Act of 1842

An English law that barred women and children under ten from working underground in mines.

Holy Alliance

An alliance formed by the conservative rulers of Austria, Prussia, and Russia in 1815, aimed at repressing liberal movements.

Karlsbad Decrees

Repressive regulations issued in 1819 to suppress liberal organizations and ideas in the German states under Metternich's influence.

Liberalism

A political ideology advocating for equality, liberty, and individual freedoms such as freedom of speech and assembly.

Laissez faire

An economic doctrine advocating for minimal government intervention in the economy.

Nationalism

The belief that each nation has its own identity, often leading to the desire for independence and self-governance.

Socialism

A movement advocating for cooperation and greater social equality, often involving state regulation of property.

Marxism

A political program based on Karl Marx's ideas that promotes a working-class revolution to establish a communist state.

Bourgeoisie

The upper-class minority that owns the means of production and exploits the working-class proletariat, according to Marx.

Caspar David Friedrich

19th-century German Romantic landscape painter, known as a significant figure of German art.

Franz Liszt

A Hungarian composer and virtuoso pianist of the Romantic era, recognized as one of history's greatest pianists.

Tory government

A term that emerged in English politics during the Exclusion Bill crisis of 1678-1681.

Six Acts

New legislation introduced after the Peterloo Massacre in 1819 aimed at suppressing radical reform meetings.

The People’s Charter of 1838

A document proposing the extension of voting rights to all adult males in Britain, written in 1838.

The Ten Hours Act of 1847

An act that limited working hours for women and young persons in UK textile mills to ten hours per day.

Revolution of 1830

The July Revolution that led to the overthrow of King Charles X in France.