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Chapter 19: The Revolutions in Politics, 1775-1815

Identify Key Terms Identify and explain the significance of each item below. 

Jacobin Club- a political club in revolutionary France whose members were well-educated radical republicans.

• Estates General- A legislative body in pre revolutionary France made up of representatives of each of the three classes, or estates. It was called into session in 1789 for the first time since1614.

• estates- The three legal categories, or orders, of France’s inhabitants: the clergy, the nobility, and everyone else. The Estates General was a legislative body with representatives from the three orders.

• National Assembly- The first French revolutionary legislature, made up primarily of representatives of the third estate and a few from the nobility and clergy, in session from 1789 to1791.

• Great Fear- The fear of noble reprisals against peasant uprisings that seized the French Countryside and led to further revolt.

 Bourgeoisie- France’s middle-class who had no privileges and defined by wealth and gained much influence in the first revolution and in the Thermidorian Reaction

• second revolution- From 1792 to 1795, the second phase of the French Revolution, during which the fall of the French monarchy introduced a rapid radicalization of politics.

• Girondists- A moderate group that fought for control of the French National Convention in1793.

• The Mountain- Led by Robespierre, the French National Convention’s radical faction, which seized legislative power in 1793.

• sans-culottes- The laboring poor of Paris, so called because the men wore trousers instead of the knee breeches of the aristocracy and middle class; the word came to refer to the militant radicals of the city.

• Reign of Terror- The period from 1793 to 1794 during which Robespierre’s Committee of Public Safety tried and executed thousands suspected of treason and a new revolutionary culture was imposed. enforced compliance with republican beliefs and practices.

• Congress of Vienna: The Congress of Vienna was a meeting of European nations that set out a strategy to maintain peace and stability throughout the continent. It gathered in 1814 following the first defeat of Napoleon Bonaparte, Emperor of France and namesake of the Napoleonic Wars. Prussia, Russia, Austria, and Britain.

Review the Main Ideas

Answer the section heading questions from the chapter.

1. What were the factors behind the revolutions of the late eighteenth century? The origins of the late-eighteenth-century revolutions in British North America, France, and Haiti Were complex. Among them were fundamental social and economic changes and political crises that eroded state authority. Another significant cause of revolutionary fervor was the impact of political ideas derived from the Enlightenment. Even though most Enlightenment writers were cautious about political reform, their confidence in reason and progress helped inspire a new generation to fight for greater freedom from oppressive governments. Most importantly, the financial crisis generated by the expenses of imperial warfare brought European states to their knees and allowed abstract discussions of reform to become pressing realities.

2. Why and how did American colonists forge a new, independent nation? After revolting against their home country, the thirteen mainland colonies of British North America succeeded in establishing a new unified government. Participants in the revolution believed they were demanding only the traditional rights which were liberal rights of English men and women. Yet in challenging and recasting authority in the colonies, the revolution did not resolve the question of social and political equality, which continued to elude enslaved people,women, free people of color, and indigenous people.

3. How did the events of 1789 result in a constitutional monarchy in France? No country felt the consequences of the American Revolution more deeply than France.Hundreds of French officers served in America and were inspired by the experience. The most famous of these, the Marquis de Lafayette, left home as a proud young aristocrat determined to fight France’s traditional foe, England. He returned with a love of liberty and firm republican convictions. French intellectuals engaged in passionate analysis of the federal Constitution as well as the constitutions of the various states of the new United States. The American Revolution undeniably fueled dissatisfaction with the old monarchical order in France. Yet theFrench Revolution did not mirror the American example. It was more radical and more complex,more influential and more controversial, more loved and more hated. For Europeans and most of the rest of the world, it was the great revolution of the eighteenth century, the revolution that opened the modern era in politics.

4. Why and how did the French Revolution take a radical turn? When Louis XVI accepted the National Assembly’s constitution in September 1791, a young provincial lawyer and delegate named Maximilien Robespierre (1758–1794) concluded that “the Revolution is over.” Robespierre was right in the sense that the most constructive and lasting reforms were in place. Yet he was wrong in suggesting that turmoil had ended, for a much more radical stage lay ahead, one that would bring war with foreign powers, the declaration of terror at home, and a transformation in France’s government.

5. How did Napoleon Bonaparte create a French empire, and why did it fail? For almost fifteen years, from 1799 to 1814, France was in the hands of a keen-minded military dictator of exceptional ability. One of history’s most fascinating leaders, Napoleon Bonaparte(1769–1821) realized that he needed to put an end to civil strife in France in order to create unity and consolidate his rule. And he did. But Napoleon saw himself as a man of destiny, and the glory of war and the dream of universal empire proved irresistible. For years he triumphed from victory to victory, but in the end he was destroyed by a mighty coalition united in fear of his restless ambition.

6. How did slave revolt on colonial Saint-Domingue lead to the independent nation of Haiti? The events that led to the creation of the independent nation of Haiti constitute the third, and perhaps most extraordinary, chapter of the revolutionary era in the late eighteenth century. Priorto 1789 Saint-Domingue, the French colony that was to become Haiti, reaped huge profits through a ruthless system of slave-based plantation agriculture. News of revolution in France lita powder keg of contradictory aspirations among white planters, free people of color, and slaves. While revolutionary authorities debated how far to extend the rights of man on Saint-Domingue, first free people of color and then enslaved people took matters into their own hands, rising up to demand their rights. They succeeded, despite invasion by the British and Spanish and Napoleon Bonaparte’s bid to reimpose French control. In 1804 Haiti became the only nation in history to claim its freedom through slave revolt

Chapter 20 – The Revolution in Energy and Industry, ca. 1780-1850

Identify Key Terms

Identify and explain the significance of each item below.

● Industrial Revolution- A term first coined in 1799 to describe the burst of major inventions and economic expansion that began in Britain in the late eighteenth century.

● spinning jenny- A simple, inexpensive, hand-powered spinning machine invented by James Hargreaves in 1765.

● water frame- A spinning machine created by Richard Arkwright that had a capacity of several hundred spindles and used waterpower; it therefore required a larger and more specialized mill — a factory.

● steam engines- A breakthrough invention by Thomas Savery in 1698 and Thomas Newcomen in 1705 that burned coal to produce steam, which was then used to operate a pump; the early models were superseded by James Watt’s more efficient steam engine, patented in 1769.

● Rocket- The name given to George Stephenson’s effective locomotive that was first tested in 1829 on the Liverpool and Manchester Railway at 35 miles per hour.

● Crystal Palace- The location of the Great Exhibition in 1851 in London; an architectural masterpiece made entirely of glass and iron.

● iron law of wages- Theory proposed by English economist David Ricardo suggesting that the pressure of population growth prevents wages from rising above the subsistence level.

● tariff protection- A government’s way of supporting and aiding its own economy by paying high taxes on imported goods from other countries, as when the French responded to cheaper British goods flooding their country by imposing high tariffs on some imported products.

● Factory Acts- English laws passed from 1802 to 1833 that limited the workday of child laborers and set minimum hygiene and safety requirements.

● separate spheres- A gender division of labor with the wife at home as mother and homemaker and the husband as wage earner.

● Mines Act of 1842- English law prohibiting underground work for all women and girls as well as for boys under ten.

Chapter 21 – Ideologies and Upheavals 1815-1850

Terms to Know Identify and explain the significance of each item below.

• Congress of Vienna- A meeting of the Quadruple Alliance (Russia, Prussia, Austria, and Great Britain), restoration of France, and smaller European states to fashion a general peace settlement that began after the defeat of Napoleon’s France in 1814.

• Holy Alliance- An alliance formed by the conservative rulers of Austria, Prussia, and Russia in September 1815 that became a symbol of the repression of liberal and revolutionary movements all over Europe.

• Quadruple Alliance- aristocratic monarchies of Russia, Prussia, Austria, and Great Britain

• Karlsbad Decrees- Issued in 1819, these repressive regulations were designed to uphold Metternich’s conservatism, requiring the German states to root out subversive ideas and squelch any liberal organizations.

• liberalism- The principal ideas of this movement were equality and liberty; liberals demand representative government and equality before the law as well as individual freedoms such as freedom of the press, freedom of speech, freedom of assembly, freedom of worship, and freedom from arbitrary arrest.

• laissez faire- A doctrine of economic liberalism that calls for unrestricted private enterprise and no government interference in the economy.
• nationalism- The idea that each person had its own genus and specific identity that manifested itself especially in a common language and history, which often led to the desire for an independent political state.

• socialism- A backlash against the emergence of individualism and the fragmentation of industrial society, and a move toward cooperation and a sense of community; the key ideas were economic planning, greater social equality, and state regulation of property.

• Marxism- An influential political program based on the socialist ideas of German radical Karl Marx, which called for a working-class revolution to overthrow capitalist society and establish a Communist state.

• bourgeoisie- The upper-class minority who owned the means of production and, according to  Marx, exploited the working-class proletariat.

• Casper David Friedrich- 19th-century German Romantic landscape painter, generally consideredthe most important German artist of his generation.

• Franz Liszt- Hungarian composer, virtuoso pianist, conductor, music teacher, arranger, andorganist of the Romantic era. He is widely regarded as one of the greatest pianists of all time.He was also a writer, philanthropist, Hungarian nationalist, and Franciscan tertiary.

• Tory government- an insult that entered english politics during the Exclusion Bill crisis of1678-1681.

• Six Acts- Following the Peterloo Massacre on 16 August 1819, the United Kingdom of GreatBritain and Ireland government acted to prevent any future disturbances by the introduction ofnew legislation, the so-called Six Acts aimed at suppressing any meetings for the purpose ofradical reform.

• The People’s Charter of 1838- written in 1838, only 18 percent of the adult-male population ofBritain could vote. The Charter proposed that the vote be extended to all adult males over theage of 21, apart from those convicted of a felony or declared insane.

• The Ten Hours Act of 1847- a United Kingdom Act of Parliament which restricted the workinghours of women and young persons (13-18) in textile mills to 10 hours per day.

• Revolution of 1830- also known as the July Revolution, Second French Revolution or TroisGlorieuses in French, led to the overthrow of King Charles X, the French Bourbon monarch

Review the Main IdeasAnswer the section heading questions from the chapter.

1. How was peace restored and maintained after the Napoleonic Wars?- The eventual eruption of revolutionary political forces in 1848 was by no meanspredictable at the end of the Napoleonic era. Quite the contrary. After finally defeatingNapoleon, the conservative, aristocratic monarchies of Russia, Prussia, Austria, andGreat Britain known as the Quadruple Alliance reaffirmed their determination to holdFrance in line. Even before Napoleon’s final defeat, the allies had agreed to fashion ageneral peace accord in 1814 at the Congress of Vienna, where they faced a greatchallenge: how could they construct a lasting settlement that would not sow the seeds ofanother war? By carefully managing the balance of power, redrawing the boundaries offormerly French-held territories, and embracing conservative restoration, they brokeredan agreement that contributed to fifty years of peace in Europe2. What new ideologies emerged to challenge conservatism?

- In the years following the peace settlement of 1815, intellectuals and social observerssought to harness the radical ideas of the revolutionary age to new political movements.Many rejected conservatism, with its stress on tradition, a hereditary monarchy, aprivileged landowning aristocracy, and an official state church. Often inspired by libertieschampioned during the French Revolution, radical thinkers developed alternativeideologies and tried to convince people to follow them. In so doing, they helped articulatethe basic political ideals that continue to shape Western society today.3. What were the characteristics of the Romantic movement?- Intellectuals in the early nineteenth century transformed political ideas, and they alsoembraced radical changes in literature and the arts. Followers of the new Romanticmovement (or Romanticism) revolted against the emphasis on rationality, order, andrestraint that characterized the Enlightenment and the controlled style of classicism.Forerunners appeared from about 1750 on, but the movement crystallized fully in the1790s, primarily in England and Germany. Romanticism gained strength and sweptacross Europe until the 1840s, when it gradually gave way to Realism.4. How did reforms and revolutions challenge conservatism after 1815?- While the Romantics enacted a revolution in the arts, liberal, national, and socialistforces battered against the conservative restoration of 1815. Political change couldresult from gradual and peaceful reform or from violent insurrection, but everywhere ittook the determination of ordinary people standing up to the prerogatives of thepowerful. Between 1815 and 1848 three important countries, Greece, Great Britain, andFrance, experienced variations on this basic theme.5. What were the main causes and consequences of the revolutions of 1848?- In the late 1840s Europe entered a period of tense economic and political crisis. Badharvests across the continent caused widespread distress. Uneven industrialdevelopment failed to provide jobs or raise incomes and boosted the popularity of theradical ideologies that emerged in the wake of the French Revolution. As a result, limitedrevolts broke out across Europe: a rebellion in the northern part of Austria in 1846, a civilwar in Switzerland in 1847, and an uprising in Naples, Italy, in January 1848. Full-scalerevolution broke out in France in February 1848, and its shock waves rippled across thecontinent. Only the most developed countries, Great Britain, Belgium, and theNetherlands, and the least developed, the Ottoman and Russian Empires, escapeduntouched. Elsewhere governments toppled, as monarchs and ministers bowed or fled.National independence, democratic constitutions, and social reform: the lofty aspirationsof a generation of liberal reformers seemed at hand. Yet in the end, the revolutionsfailed.