British Empire 1857 - 1947

How significant was the impact of ww1 on Empire?

• Expansion = Areas lost, new territories

• BR rule = Spread too thin to have strong or effective control

• Trade & commerce = Negatively impacted, less capable of continuing trading while fighting

• Importance of individuals = Increased importance due to disruption & fragmentation due to war

• Attitude toward Empire = Negative; issues at home escalate & worsen due to war effort

• Indigenous Relation = Rise in nationalism as compensation for fighting on behalf of Empire

Colonies gained (Areas taken control of);

Due to Treaty of Versailles (+ other peace treaties)

• Central + East Africa

• SW Africa

• Middle East

• Pacific Colonies

Factors in the lead up to war

• Anglo-German tensions (Weltpolitik)

• Involvement of Dominions - Aus + NZ contribute to naval fund

• 1911 Imperial defence conference; procure involvement of dominions (volunteer troops)

• Abandonment of Berlin to Baghdad railway (threat of access to India)

• 1908 Young Turks Revolt - Collapse of the Ottoman Empire; Scramble for territory between European Powers (e.g. Austria-Hungary)

Britain and the Middle East, Post WWI

• Overpromising and underdelivering → making contradicting promises to various different places and peoples

• Socially and Economically interfering

British Empire and the Middle East - Pre ww1

Palestine under Ottoman rule

British Empire and the Middle East - 1914

Britain promise Arab independence under Ottoman rule (incl. Palestine) in exchange for support against Turkey

British Empire and the Middle East - 1915-16

Hussein-MacMahon Correspondence

Hussein-MacMahon Correspondence

Exchange of letter between Sherrif Hussein ibn Ali, ruler of Mecca and the Hejaz, and Sir Henry MacMahon, Br high commissioner in Egypt; regarding the future political status of the Arab lands of the Middle East, w/ Britain aiming to bring about a revolt against the Ottoman Empire

• Effects: Securing rights of Arabs within Middle Eastern countries

• Important for the expansion of Empire through the middle east, securing the Suez Canal from conflict & protecting route to India

• Voided by Sykes-Picot agreement & calls Balfour Declaration into question

British Empire and the Middle East - May 1916

Skyes-Picot Agreement

Sykes-Picot Agreement

Secret pact signed between Britain and France, outlining respective spheres of control withing the Middle East, post-war - Viewed by Arabs as betrayal of Hussein-MacMahon Correspondence

Palestine, designated for international administration (a.k.a BR)

France - SE Turkey, N Iraq, Syria, Lebanon

Britain- Jordan, S Iraq, Palestine

• Effects: division of area not ‘owned’ by either country, disregards potentially gained or lost territories from the end of war

• Collapsed by Balfour Declaration destroys faith in Britain's ability to retain promises (also proven by Balfour)

British Empire and the Middle East - During War

• Britain and France encouraged Arab rebellion against Turkish Emp!

• Heavy fighting between British & Turkish forces

• Turkey enforce Palestine-Arab conscription

• Arab self-determination growing

British Empire and the Middle East - 1917

Balfor Declaration established

Balfour Declaration

Letter from Arthur Balfour to Lord Rothschild, concerning Britain's desire to create a Zionist sympathetic, Jewish home nation - on the basis, that there would be no infringement on the rights of non-Jewish communities already within Palestine (proposed sight for nation state)

• Resulted in rise of Jewish immigration, creating displacement of local Palestinians

• Contradicted terms and promises of Hussein-MacMahon Correspondence

• Created to appease anti-imperialist Americans, as Britain was indebted to the USA (ww1)

Britsh Empire and the Middle East - 1918

Aftermath of war, Sons of Hussein made kings of Transjordan, Syria & Iraq

British Empire and the Middle East - July 1922

League of Nations give Britain, mandate to administrate Palestine - Britain express interest in Zionism and describe its intentions of developing a Jewish State

Why was their ‘policing’ within Palestine?

attempt at restoring order, as Arabs had thrown stones at houses, due to them believing that Jewish people wished to rebuild an ancient temple on area that was holy ground for BOTH Judaism and Islam

Palestine 1924

• Garrisons created within Palestine - didn't stop the spread of violence

• 173/1576 police in Palestine were British

• Cost £9 million

Palestine 1928 - 9

• Petty harassment against Jewish worshippers by Muslims, Nationalist zionist movement attempted gaining exclusive worshipping access

• Demonstrations, random attacks & killings of Jews and Arabs

Ireland 1801

Act of Union, of GB and Ireland came into effect

Ireland, 19th Century

Great famine of 1840s, Campaigns for Irish Home Rule

Ireland 1913

Dublin Lock-out; Aug 1913 - Jan 1914, industrial disputes between 20,000 workers and 300 employers

→ Rebellion in Ulster, stopping Asquith’s HR bill from passing in Parliament

Ireland 1914

Threat of Civil war, due to Got of Ireland Act being put on hold due to outbreak of WW1; Irish volunteers prepared armed rising against Irish conscription

Ireland 1916

Easter Rising

• Triggered by 1916 conscription, Organised by Irish Volunteers (Nationalists) calling for Home Rule

• Uprisings in Dublin, initially unpopular due to unity created amongst opposition fighting together in trenches → change after BR response = 15 leaders executed, street fighting = 450 Civilians died + 1000 arrested

Ireland 1919 - 21

Anglo-Irish treaty signed after Anglo-Irish war, creating ‘Irish Free State’ (ROI)

Ireland 1922

Catholic Irish Free State given dominion status

Ireland 1937

Ireland given full independence under the 1931 Statute of Westminster

1931 Statute of Westminster

increased the sovereignty of the self-governing Dominions of the British Empire from the United Kingdom

How did Britain’s economic relationship W/ empire change

• increased dependency on imperial imports

• colonial reserves pay for war

Why did the relationship with America change after the war?

• Power shift from Britain to USA

• End of LEND-LEASE = repayment of debt; not paying for continuation of empire (e.g. Pro Indian independence)

Why was the situation worse for Britain in 1945?

£900m loan negotiated w/ USA but on tough repayment terms - nego JM Keynes

£ to become freely convertible to $ by 1947 = fixed rate exchange (HEAVILY reliant on dollar reserves)

What was the Sterling Crisis?

• Br used USD to build dollar loan to build reserve of US$ in Bank of England

• Imperial demands → used up $ reseves within 6wks

  • 30.5% deval from £ to $

Overview of Empire 1857- 90

• Expansion of territory

• primary expansion within Africa, South East Asia + Pacific (e.g., Kenya, Uganda, India, etc.)

Why did “Empire swing to the East?”

• Change in imperial priority

• Shift in Empire from Political control to Economic dominance

• more desirable, lots of untouched land/ territory = an unlimited capacity to produce and trade items (e.g., fertile land)

• Strategic importance of territories (e.g., naval & trade access)

India 1857

• Religious diversity (Hinduism, Islam, Sikhism)

• British controlled territories - Costal, periphery

• Independent territories under Princely rule

• ONLY 2 main roads - British Territory, Northern India; coast/major cities: Delhi, Bombay, Calcutta

• Capital City, Calcutta - Eastern point of India

  • Threat of invasion posed by Russia

India - 1600

East India Company granted Royal Charter by Elizabeth I,

• arrived in India, developed trading areas in: Surat (1612), Madras (1640), Bombay (1661), Calcutta (1690)

India 1707

Last Mughal Emperor dies; creating power vacuum, which EIC attempt to fill

India 1757

British interest = Annexation of Bengal, brought under control by Clive of India via trade agreements with princes & monopolising trade

India 1773

East India Company forced to ask for help - Regulating Act granted (Governor General role created)

India 1784

Indian Board of Control created to supervise Indian affairs, formalise dual control (EIC/British Gov)

India 1800

Expansion of British rule within power vacuum, incl. Policy of Westernisation

India 1857

Indian Mutiny (First Indian War of Independence) broke out

Pax Britannica

Peace between Britain & India; promotion of an evangelical Christian rulership

“Fictional Sovereignty”

Indian rulers (maharajahs) felt as though they had control - but were at the mercy of EIC

Doctrine of Lapse

Policy of annexation of any Indian States by the EIC if the ruler was deemed incompetent/ died without an heir

1773 Regulating Act

Sought to monitor/ control the EIC & gave extraction rights

1784 India Act

Introduced Exchequer (Secretary of State), Curtailing power of EIC & increasing government dominance

1813 Charter Act

Britain's moral responsibility - outlawing cultural practices (E.g., Sati & Thugee)

How did Britain control India without full Government involvement?

• Civil Service

• Police

• Army

• Education

• Attitudes

Civil Service (pre-1857)

• Cornwallis → Gov Gen. 1786 (determined to purify corrupt admin)

• Raise salary of servants

  • top level of civil servants = British

  • lower level servants = some natives

Police (pre-1857)

• est. of separate police force

• Thanas (Police Station), Daroga (Inspectors)

• Loyal to Britain

  • Indians → British pawns created divisions in Society

  • British Rule → Strengthen formal systems of control

Army (pre-1857)

• EIC's army (Sepoys) recruited locally

• Only 3 Indians received 300rs Per Month; highest position equivalent to British Lieutenant

  • Indian members created division between Sepoys + British officers/ superiors

  • creates resentment/ lack of motivation & loyalty

• British rule = direct + control of Army

• ratio of British : Indian Soldiers in Army = 1 : 8

Education (pre-1857)

• School (formal education) was for Civil Servants; Fort Williams, Haileybury

• 1813 - duty to awaken Indians ‘from intellectual slumber’

• 1835 - promotion of Western education (e.g., intro English lessons, official language remained Urdu)

Attitudes (pre-1857)

• Christian missionaries spearheaded a movement for western ideals → legislated bans on ‘barbaric‘ cultural practices

• Conversations minimal → Brahmic caste system in society

• Caste system entrenched in land distribution system

• Revival of Hindu & Muslim fundamentalism

  • missionary impact felt in hospitals & schools

Significance of the Indian army

The army and sepoys were significant as they regarded their calling as being part of their faith; providing the foundation for British control.

Indian Mutiny, 1857

• rumour spread in the army; new gunpowder cartridges were sealed with beef/ pork gelatine.

  • caused uproar as the tops of the cartridges had to be bitten off, going against religious beliefs - offending sepoys

• May 1857; Sepoys mutiny - killing europeans + siege of Lucknow lasted 2-3 months & 2/3 of europeans died

British response to the Indian Mutiny

Disproportionate show of force and violence

• Massacre at Cawnpore

• Sepoys forced to lick blood of dead British soldiers

• Sepoys strapped to cannons

• Sepoys bodies hung along major roadsides

British view on Indian Mutiny

• Viewed as defiance of authority; religious war

• Events of 1857 villainise Indians as ‘savage creatures’, denounced all positives of natives

• Desired to seek revenge against Indians for mutinying

Indian view on Mutiny

• First Indian war of independence; Britain were oppressors, India acted in self-defense

British Attitudes Post-Mutiny

• Stories placed harsher emphasis on Indians' barbarianism & brutality; justifying imperial expansion & its necessity by use of propaganda

• The British continued to treat & consider Indians as 2nd class citizens; attempting to avoid contact with them as much ad possible (e.g., restricting opportunity for progression & maintaining racial superiority)

• Increasing tolerance of religions → Avoiding repeat of mutiny; protecting control over India, the ‘Jewel in the Crown'

Politics Post-Mutiny

• Introduction of 1858 Government of India Act

  • Abolished EIC, made Crown Rule official & introduced Secretary of State + Viceroy positions

• Build up to mutiny had been underestimated & animosity to EIC corruption rose

• Doctrine of Lapse removed → Gained loyalty of Indian princes as ‘puppets' to protect against rebellion

Economics Post-Mutiny

• Rise of cash crops → (e.g., tea, wheat), profit/ loss of Chinese tea market

• Indian textile industry collapsed → British textile industry given permanent foreign market

• Growth of Railways → Travel/ Railway imperialism = greater control

Social Post-Mutiny

• Education → 100s of Schools, 3 major universities (Calcutta, Bombay, Madras)

  • Westernisation of Indian ideals, creating social elite & strengthening civil service/ government

  • Only avaliable to higher classes (Literacy levels 1947; 17% literate)

• Recognition of the Caste system; pacifying unrest

  • No interference in cultural practices

  • Preserved as means of maintaining control, thorough hierarchical societal structure

Why was Britain interested in Egypt?

• Connected Africa to Middle East

• Held strategic importance → access to India

Lord Palmerston comment about Egypt; trade & economic access (1860)

‘We do not want to have Egypt' ‘We wish to trade through’

“Scramble for Africa”

• European countries viewd Africa as ‘free for the taking’

  • Diplomatic approach → Berlin Conference

  • Military conflict → Invasion, occupation & colonisation of African territory by European powers during the period between 1881 & 1914

What was the delay in expanding into Africa?

• Believed to be underdeveloped nicknamed ‘Dark Continent’ as Britain & Europe knew little about the continent

• Lack of maps/ geographical knowledge

• Lack of understanding civilisations

• Challenging terrain for travel → Sahara Desert, Jungle/ Rainforests

• Costal issues with transportation; ships & railways

• Disease → Yellow fever, Malaria, African sleeping sickness, Nagana (killed horses)

• Technology → Swords & Spears; Industrialised armies not in existence yet, Clipper ships (small gunboats) used instead

Motives of ‘Scramble for Africa'

Moral - Desire to bring end to slavery

European Power Rivalry - Stopping other European nations gaining power/ wealth within these areas

Economic - Capture the known resources of Gold & Rubber for European economies

Strategic/ Geopolitical - Strategic importance for trade routes → Egypt (Suez Canal), Sudan (Nile access), Cape of Africa

National Pride - The pride & desire towards expanding the Empire brought to a nation that can’t be overlooked as a cause.

Brussels Conference, 1876

→ Hosted by King Leopold of Belgium, motivated by desire to protect Belgian interests in Congo & concluded;

• Africans were incapable of developing natural resources forces in central Africa - deeming European intervention necessary

• Routes to Africa's great lakes needed to be developed by building roads & railways

• International African Association should be established to co-ordinate European efforts

  → conference heightened competition

Berlin Conference, 1884 - 85

→ Hosted by Otto von Bismarck, established;

• nations should be permitted to trade in the Basim of the Congo & its outlets

  • Free trade should be made available in these regions

• Powers taking possession of further land on African Coasts should notify signatories, to enable them to assert their own claims on basis of Effective Occupation

South Africa 1857 - 90

1867 - Discovery of Diamonds, Kimberly on the Vaal in West Griqualand - bordering Orange Free State → triggered diamond rush

1868 - British annexed Basutoland - claiming Africans desired protections

1871 - British took West Griqualand (Griquas establish E. Griqualand)

1874 - British annex East Griqualand

1875 - British federation proposed Boer territories & rejected

1877-78 - annexation of Transvaal, British troops provoked Xhosa war

1881 - British defeated at Majumba Hill (approx. 150 killed)

1884 - Britain fear Boer-German Alliance

1885 - British annex Bechuanaland

1886 - Gold discovered at Witwatersrand near Pretoria - gold rush

Egypt Pre-1850

Egypt was run as a modern private estate

• French involvement began

• Trading Cotton - 2/5 to Britain; invests (loaned) in railways, shipping, ports, education

Egypt 1850/60s

France began to pour money into Egypt

• 1863 - Egypt is in debt, £3 million + 7% interest

• 1880 - £100 milion + 20% interest

Egypt 1869

Ferdinand de Lesseps designed Suez Canal

• shortens route to India by 43%, by offering major trade route through Mediterranean & Red Sea

  • Controlled by Suez Canal Co. - owned by France, Turkish/Ottoman empire

Egypt 1875

Egypt on the brink of insolvency

• borrowing unchecked by internal government restraint, lead to bankruptcy

• Britain given control of customs, treasury, post office, etc.

• Disraeli buys 44% of Suez Canal shares for £4 million - made Britain largest stakeholder

Egypt 1878-9

Cave Report & Rescue Plan

• placed stringent financial control on economy

  • lead to deposition of Khedive by Ottoman Sultan

Egypt 1881 (Feb - Sep)

Rise of nationalist protests, led by Urabi Pasha

• foreign officials in army unpaid, full uprising with Pasha taking control of army

Egypt 1881 (Oct)

Anglo-French response to rise of Egyptian Nationalism

• Naval force sent in May as gesture of support to Ruler, to support keeping control of Suez Canal

Egypt 1882 (Jun)

Nationalist riot in Alexandria

• Europeans massacred

• Egyptians afraid of imminent occupation

  • death = 50 European; 170 Egyptian

Egypt 1882 (Jul - Aug)

Anglo-“French” response

• British show commitment to Egypt; sending in 24,000 Br troops + 7000 Indian soldiers

  • followed by 1883 Dufferin Report (advise taking political control, Investors panicked and put pressure on British intervention taking place)

• French troops refused to join armed proposal of military expedition

Egypt 1884

Establishment of Lord Cromer's administration of Egypt & end of Anglo-French control

• establishment of Veiled Protectorate

Sudan 1881

Ahmad proclaims himself as ‘Mahdi’ (saviour)

• Elobeid is invaded, ‘Golden age of Sudan'

Sudan 1882

Sudan Mahdist Revolution

• Khartoum siezed by Mahdists

• British send in General Hicks & Army to control rebellion

Sudan 1883

Anglo-Egyptian counter attack launched

• Loss of control of Sudan → British army withdraws (Hicks killed)

Sudan 1884

Gladstone orders the withdrawal of troops from Sudan under the supervision of Col. Charles Gordon

• Gordon ignores orders, attempts to retake Khartoum

  • killed and martyred, considered as ‘Evangelical Saviour’ for attempting to protect British Superiority

Sudan 1885

British troops are overrun = loss of control of Sudan

Railways (India)

15000km by 1880

allowed for railway imperialism to strengthen British control

South Africa - 1867

Discovery of Diamonds in Kimberly on the Vaal (near West Griqualand, bordering Orange Free State)

• Triggered diamond rush, attracting white settlers & Native Bantus (lead to investment & annexation)

South Africa - 1868

British annex Basutolan; claim indigenous Africans sought British protection against Boers

South Africa - 1871-4

• British take West Griqualand (1871)

• British annex East Griqualand

South Africa - 1875

Britain propose federation of British & Boer territories - rejected by Boers

South Africa - 1877

British annex Transvaal; to defend Boers from local tribes, Boers reluctantly accepted

South Africa - 1878/9

Xhosa War - British disarmed tribesmen & annexed the Cape

• (1878) BR troops instructed only to react defensively against Zulus

  • Ignored by Bartle Frere - deliberately provoked war against Zulus, 1000 soldiers killed at Isandhlwana = full-scale war

• (1879) Zulus defeated after 7 months of fighting

  • Total dead = 2400 British Soldiers

South Africa - 1880

Gladstone sacked Bartle Frere

• Boers declared republic (Dec, 1880)

  1. divided cabinet on wanting to accept & reverse annexation to agree on independent Transvaal or favour firm approach → discouraging rebels across empire

• British attacked by Boers across Transvaal, prior to announcement

South Africa 1881

British defeated at Majumba Hill

• 150 killed

• Britain force to sign Convention of Pretoria + recognise Boer self-government in Transvaal

• public wanted revenge, but Gladstone said the “unworthy emotion” should be put aside

South Africa 1884

German arrival in SW Africa

• Britain feared German-Boer Alliance

South Africa 1885

Annexation of Bechuanaland by British

• made north a protectorate & south a crown colony

South Africa 1886

Discovery of Gold at Witwatersrand near Transvaal (capital of Pretoria) - triggered gold rush

South Africa 1889 - 90

Cecil Rhodes, PM of the Cape

Imperial Successes - Gladstone's government

• Est. British Protectorate in Egypt, to protect interest in Suez Canal

• (1884 - 5) British involvement in Berlin Conference, creating order amongst powers over ‘Scramble for Africa

Imperial Successes - Disraeli’s government

• (1875) Disraeli purchase majority of holdings in Suez Canal shares from bankrupt Egypt - permanent strategic placement between Mediterranean and India